A SOCIO-ECONOMIC HISTORY OF NORTH SHÄWA, ETHIOPIA (1880s-1935). by DECHASA ABEBE DEMISIE submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF LITERATURE AND PHILOSOPHY in the subject HISTORY at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA Supervisors Dr. Debay Taddesse Professor Russel Viljoen January, 2015 Table of Contents Table of Contents ............................................................................................................................. i Glossary ......................................................................................................................................... iv Acknowledgments......................................................................................................................... vii Declaration ................................................................................................................................... viii Summary ........................................................................................................................................ ix Chapter One .................................................................................................................................... 1 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.1. Geographical Setting ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2 Methodology ....................................................................................................................... 5 1.3 Sources .............................................................................................................................. 10 1.4 Structure ......................................................................................................................... 23 Chapter Two.................................................................................................................................. 26 Review of Related Literature ........................................................................................................ 26 2. Impoverishment: Causes and Consequences ........................................................................ 26 2.1. Causes of Impoverishment ............................................................................................. 29 2.1.1. Access to Resources and Property Rights ............................................................... 32 2.1.2. Conflicts and War ................................................................................................... 35 2.1.3. Physical Environment and Related Challenges ...................................................... 37 2.1.4. Socio-Cultural Systems ........................................................................................... 40 2.2. Consequences of Impoverishment ................................................................................. 42 2.2.1. Poor Livelihood (Substandard Lifestyle) ................................................................ 43 2.2.2. Conflicts over Resources ........................................................................................ 44 2.2.3. Population Outmigration ......................................................................................... 45 2.2.4. Maladministration by the Agents of Absentee lords............................................... 47 Chapter Three................................................................................................................................ 49 3. Historical Background .............................................................................................................. 49 3.1. Survey of Environmental History of North Shäwa (16th -19th century) ............................. 49 3.3 Agricultural settlements of the Amhara community since the 19th century ....................... 57 Chapter Four ................................................................................................................................. 67 4. Land Tenure System ................................................................................................................. 67 4.1 Background (1865-1880) .................................................................................................. 67 4.2. Public Land or ―Land of the First Settlers‖ ....................................................................... 69 4.2.1. Common Property Resources ..................................................................................... 73 4.2. 2 ―Private‖ Farmlands (Rist) 1891-1935) .................................................................... 75 i 4.3. ―State Lands‖ (1880-1935) ................................................................................................ 83 4.4 Sämon (Church) lands (1880-1935) .................................................................................... 98 Chapter Five ................................................................................................................................ 102 5. Land Taxes and Tributes (1880-1935) .................................................................................... 102 5.1. Land Inventory and Measurement (1879-1880) .............................................................. 103 5.2 Taxes and Tributes (1880-1932) ....................................................................................... 107 5.2.1. Taxes from Rist owners ............................................................................................ 109 5.2.2 Taxes from the Siso of the Balabbats/Mälekägnas .................................................... 115 5.2.3. Services from holders of Sämon land ........................................................................... 115 5.3. Local Administrators and Systems of Taxations ............................................................. 117 5.4. Gult Rights and its Impacts on Agricultural Productivity ............................................... 127 Chapter Six.................................................................................................................................. 131 6. Multiple Instabilities ............................................................................................................... 131 6.1. Political Instabilities....................................................................................................... 132 6.1.1 Menilek and his Rivals (1865-1889).......................................................................... 132 6.1.2. From Relative Internal Peace to Sägälé (1889-1916) ............................................... 134 6. 2. Religious Conflicts......................................................................................................... 136 6. 3. Inter and Intra Community Conflicts ............................................................................. 138 6.4. Predatory System as Consequence of Instabilities........................................................... 145 Chapter Seven ............................................................................................................................. 153 7. ―Natural‖ Challenges to Peasants‘ Productivity.................................................................... 153 7.1. Monkeys, Locusts and other Pests ................................................................................... 154 7.2. Land Degradations and Uncertain Weather ..................................................................... 158 7.3. Famines and Health problems .......................................................................................... 166 Chapter Eight .............................................................................................................................. 177 8. Socio-Cultural Systems ........................................................................................................... 177 8.1. Agricultural Tools and Practices ...................................................................................... 177 8.2. Migration as way out of the Socio-economic Problems .................................................. 183 8.3. Religion and ―Peasant Mentality‖ .................................................................................... 186 8.4. Social Environment that Favored Warrior-hood......................................................... 193 8.5 The Destructive Methods ofUsing Resources................................................................... 198 Chapter Nine ............................................................................................................................... 200 9. Shäwan Towns in the Neighbourhood of Farmlands .............................................................. 200 9.1 Semi-Mobile Royal Residences (1865-1881) ................................................................... 200 9.2. Depletion of Resources and Transfer of the Capital to Central Shäwa (1881-1886) ...... 216 ii 9.3. Following the Footsteps of the Capital: North Shäwans became the Majority of Addis Ababa‘s Residents (1886-1935) .............................................................................................. 221 Chapter Ten ................................................................................................................................. 226 10. Population Outmigration (1881-1935) ...............................................................................