RECONSTRUCTING THE EROSIONAL HISTORY OF 19TH-CENTURY EARTHEN FORTIFICATIONS ALONG THE COASTLINE OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY, MARYLAND, USA by Corey L. Hovanec A thesis submitted to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geology Summer 2015 © 2015 Corey L. Hovanec All Rights Reserved ProQuest Number: 1602364 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. ProQuest 1602364 Published by ProQuest LLC (2015). Copyright of the Dissertation is held by the Author. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346 RECONSTRUCTING THE EROSIONAL HISTORY OF 19TH-CENTURY EARTHEN FORTIFICATIONS ALONG THE COASTLINE OF THE CHESAPEAKE BAY, MARYLAND, USA by Corey L. Hovanec Approved: __________________________________________________________ Michael A. O’Neal, Ph.D. Professor in charge of thesis on behalf of the Advisory Committee Approved: __________________________________________________________ Neil Sturchio, Ph.D. Chair of the Department of Geological Sciences Approved: __________________________________________________________ Mohsen Badiey, Ph.D. Interim Dean of the College of Earth, Ocean, and Environment Approved: __________________________________________________________ James G. Richards, Ph.D. Vice Provost for Graduate and Professional Education ACKNOWLEDGMENTS I would like to extend my sincerest thanks to the many individuals who played a critical role in the completion of this thesis, and without whose support and guidance it would not have been possible. First and foremost, my advisor, Dr. Michael O’Neal, for continually pushing me to improve and providing the skills, knowledge, and technology necessary for 21st-century geoarchaeology. Thank you to the members of my committee, Dr. Ralph Eshelman and Dr. Darrin Lowery, for their unparalleled expertise in their respective fields and their willingness to share it. Logistically, this thesis would not have been possible without financial support from the State of Maryland, the Maryland War of 1812 Bicentennial Commission, and Star-Spangled 200, Inc. I would also like to acknowledge the respective landowners of each fort and their desire to preserve and advance the study of these delicate national treasures. Special thanks to Peter Tattle for his generous hospitality and interest in our study. Input from Scott Sheads, David Lowe, and Dr. Mechelle Kerns was insightful, interesting, and much appreciated. Thank you to Dr. Chris Sommerfield and Brandon Boyd for the timely completion of gamma counting, and the willingness to thoroughly explain the process. Dr. Claire O’Neal played a significant role in the editing process, for which I am grateful. Thank you as well to the following, whose contributions were varied, but no less significant: Rachael Fowler, Dan Hubacz, Renato Kane, and Mike Orefice. iii I especially want to thank my parents, grandparents, and sister for their endless love, support, and encouragement. Words cannot express how grateful I am. Finally, thank you to two special felines – Sascha and Traffic – who made long hours in front of the computer (mostly) enjoyable and provided much needed breaks when refusing to budge from the keyboard. Thank you, all. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................... viii LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................................................... ix ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................. xi Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION .............................................................................................. 1 2 BACKGROUND ................................................................................................ 5 2.1 The War of 1812 ........................................................................................ 5 2.1.1 America’s Second War of Independence ...................................... 5 2.1.2 A Campaign of Terror on the Chesapeake .................................... 9 2.1.3 The War Comes to an End ........................................................... 12 2.2 A History of Earthen Fortification in Colonial and Post-Colonial America ................................................................................................... 13 2.2.1 Systems of Permanent Coastal Fortification ............................... 15 2.2.2 Earthen Field Fortification .......................................................... 20 2.2.3 Contemporary Military Manuals ................................................. 24 2.3 Characteristics of Earthen Field Fortifications ........................................ 26 2.4 Construction of Earthen Field Fortifications ........................................... 35 2.5 The Fate of War of 1812 Earthworks ...................................................... 36 2.6 Historical Accounts of Forts Nonsense, Point, and Stokes ..................... 38 2.6.1 Fort Nonsense, Annapolis, Maryland .......................................... 38 2.6.2 Fort Point, Centreville, Maryland ................................................ 41 2.6.3 Fort Stokes, Easton, Maryland .................................................... 44 3 GEOGRAPHIC, PHYSIOGRAPHIC, AND GEOLOGIC SETTINGS .......... 48 3.1 Fort Nonsense .......................................................................................... 49 3.2 Fort Point ................................................................................................. 50 3.3 Fort Stokes ............................................................................................... 51 v 4 FIELD AND LABORATORY METHODS .................................................... 53 4.1 High-Resolution Surface Modeling of Current Forms with a Terrestrial Laser Scanner ......................................................................... 53 4.1.1 Data Collection ............................................................................ 54 4.1.2 Scan Registration ......................................................................... 54 4.1.3 Data Filtering ............................................................................... 55 4.1.4 Digital Elevation Models ............................................................. 56 4.2 Hillslope Diffusion Modeling .................................................................. 58 4.3 Sediment Dating Using Fallout Radionuclides ....................................... 59 4.3.1 Sediment Sample Retrieval ......................................................... 61 4.3.2 Laboratory Sample Preparation ................................................... 62 4.3.3 Gamma-ray Spectrometry ........................................................... 62 5 RESULTS ......................................................................................................... 64 5.1 Terrestrial Laser Scanner Data ................................................................ 64 5.1.1 Fort Nonsense .............................................................................. 64 5.1.2 Fort Point ..................................................................................... 66 5.1.3 Fort Stokes ................................................................................... 68 5.2 Diffusion Models ..................................................................................... 69 5.3 Stratigraphic Analysis ............................................................................. 70 5.4 Radiometric Dating ................................................................................. 71 210 5.4.1 Pbex .......................................................................................... 72 5.4.2 137Cs ............................................................................................. 73 6 DISCUSSION ................................................................................................... 75 6.1 Terrestrial Laser Scanning ....................................................................... 75 6.2 Diffusion Models ..................................................................................... 76 6.3 Radiometric Dating ................................................................................. 77 6.4 Future Work ............................................................................................. 79 6.5 Recommendations for Earthwork Preservation ....................................... 80 7 CONCLUSIONS .............................................................................................. 81 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 108 vi Appendix A COMPLETE RADIOMETRIC ANALYSIS DATA FOR CORE B AT FORT POINT ................................................................................................. 122 B COMPLETE RADIOMETRIC ANALYSIS DATA FOR CORE D AT FORT POINT 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