MEXICAN AMERICANS: A SOCIOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION M E X I C A N AMERICAN MEXICAN MEXICAN AMERICAN A M E R I C A N i Mexican Americans: A Sociological Introduction Philip E. Lampe University of the Incarnate Word August 2018 ii CONTENTS IN BRIEF Preface vii Introduction 1 Chapter 1 Ancestral Development (1519-1848) 18 Chapter 2 Nascent Ethnic Development (1848-1929) 40 Chapter 3 Growth and Accommodation (1929-1946) 75 Chapter 4 Ethnic Discontent and Organization (1946-1962) 96 Chapter 5 Ethnic Reaffirmation and Protest (1962-1980) 129 Chapter 6 Ethnic Inclusion (1980-2012) 183 Chapter 7 The Future: Majority Minority (2012 – present) 246 Useful Spanish Terms 276 Recommended Documentaries/Movies 279 Author Index 281 iii CONTENTS Preface vii Introduction 1 Religion 2 Terms Hispanic/Latino 3 Minorities 3 Distribution 5 Puerto Ricans 7 Cubans 8 Mexican Americans 10 Names to Remember 13 Sociological Glossary 14 Works Cited 16 Chapter One Ancestral Development (1519-1848) 18 A Uniting Vision 20 Mexican Independence 23 The Expansion of the United States 24 Conclusion 25 Chronology of Events 27 Names to Remember 28 Sociology Glossary 29 Works Cited 30 Related Readings 31 iv Discussion Questions 39 Chapter Two Nascent Ethnic Development (1848-1929) 40 Mexicanos are not Americans 41 Reaction to Racism 42 Violations of the Treaty 45 Additional Hardships 47 Mexican Immigration and Economic Development 48 Mexican Catholicism 50 Conclusion 51 Chronology of Events 52 Names to Remember 53 Sociological Glossary 54 Works Cited 56 Related Readings 58 Discussion Questions 74 Chapter Three Growth and Accommodation (1929-1946) 75 Repatriation and Illegal Deportation 76 What to do with Mexicanos 77 Mexican Contributions to the United States 79 Racism and Racial Conflict 80 The Bracero Program 82 Conclusion 85 Chronology of Events 87 v Names to Remember 88 Sociological Glossary 89 Works Cited 90 Related Readings 91 Discussion Questions 95 Chapter Four Ethnic Discontent and Organization (1946-1962) 96 The Forming of Organizations 96 The Problem 98 Postwar Progress 101 Conclusion 103 Chronology of Events 105 Names to Remember 106 Sociological Glossary 107 Works Cited 108 Related Readings 109 Discussion Questions 128 Chapter Five Ethnic Reaffirmation and Protest (1962-1980) 129 Unacceptable Americans 130 The Struggle for Acceptance 131 The Term Chicano 133 The Chicano Movement 134 Organizing for a Fight 134 Primary Leaders of the Movement 135 vi The Raza Unida Party 142 Riots in California 143 Catholicism and the Chicano Movement 146 A Movement within the Movement 147 Conclusion 148 Chronology of Events 152 Names to Remember 154 Sociological Glossary 155 Works Cited 157 Related Readings 160 Discussion Questions 182 Chapter Six Ethnic Inclusion (1980-2012) 183 Catholic Response to Hispanic Concerns 185 Educational Concerns and Consequences 186 Mexican Americans and Politics 188 Immigration and Assimilation 189 Border States Seek a Solution 191 Mexicanos and the Law 193 Conclusion 196 Chronology of Events 198 Names to Remember 199 Sociological Glossary 200 Works Cited 201 Related Readings 204 vii Discussion Questions 245 Chapter Seven The Future: Majority Minority (2012-present) 246 The Changing Face of the United States 248 Greater Focus on Immigration 252 New Prospects for Immigration Reform 253 Conclusion 257 Sociological Glossary 261 Works Cited 262 Related Readings 264 Discussion Questions 275 Useful Spanish Terms 276 Recommended Documentaries/Movies 279 Author Index 281 viii MEXICAN AMERICANS: A SOCIOLOGICAL INTRODUCTION Preface This book is designed to introduce the readers to the largest and oldest segment of one of the fastest growing ethnic group in the United States. Hispanics are the largest and youngest ethnic minority in the nation. As such, their importance for the future of the country cannot be ignored. Mexican Americans are the largest segment of Hispanics and are the focus of this text. For years I have been unable to find a text to use in my sociology class on Hispanics in the United States. I did not want to use a history book, although it is important to know something of the history of Mexicans, immigrant and native-born Americans, in order to understand their current situation. Therefore, I have endeavored to use sociological concepts and selected important events and people to present a basis for studying Mexican Americans. Many knowledgeable people may be unhappy with my selection of names of people and events, not so much those which have been included but those which have been excluded. I am merely attempting to present a manageable number of some commonly recognized people and events. Although there is an important distinction between Mexicans and Mexican Americans, at times the distinction will be made but at other times it will not. The term Mexicans may be used to include both immigrant and native-born Americans, if, as often happens, the event applied equally to both and the perpetrators of the action did not make the distinction. There are many good history books, some I have cited, which the reader may wish to consult regarding each of the brief references made concerning particular events. Some reference books will be indicated which can be used, as well as some excellent documentary films and/or movies which students have found helpful because they illustrate events presented in this text. It is hoped that this introductory text will provide you with a basic knowledge and appreciation of the hardships and contributions of Mexican Americans and will arouse your curiosity to learn even more. This text begins with an introduction which examines the concept Hispanic, and presents brief summaries of information regarding Puerto Ricans and Cuban Americans, the second and third largest sub-groups Following this is Names to Remember, which is a list of names of people and events mentioned in the Introduction which are worth remembering. This is followed by a Sociological Glossary, which contains the definitions of the terms used in the Introduction, and Works Cited. There are seven chapters, each dealing with a specific time period. Following each chapter is a Chronology of Period ix Events which gives the dates of important events occurring during that time period. Then, in order, are: the Names to Remember, Sociological Glossary and Works Cited. These will be followed by Related Readings, which deal with conditions or events related to the chapter, and Discussion Questions After the last chapter which deals with the future, there will be no Chronology for obvious reasons, nor a list of Names to Remember. There is, however, a Sociological Glossary, Works Cited and Discussion Questions. There is also a list of Useful Spanish Terms as well as a list of Recommended Documentaries/Movies. As always there is an author index. Sociological terms used in a chapter are in bold print, the meaning of which can be found in the Sociological Glossary at the end of each chapter. Spanish words are italicized and the meanings are given at the time they are first used. These words are not included in the list of Useful Spanish Terms found at the end of the text. It is hoped that you will find this format beneficial. x Introduction What is Hispanic? It is a term instituted by the federal government in the 1970s to refer to a diverse category of people. There are 23 Hispanic nations/groups with origins from Argentina to Venezuela. It is not a single nationality, race or ethnic group. Hispanic is not a racial category but can be found in all races. There are Hispanic Negroids, Hispanic Mongoloids and Hispanic Caucasoids. Hispanics have often been categorized as non-white (together with Negroids and Mongoloids), however, many are white (Caucasoids) and have officially been classified as such on the Government Census. Therefore, the often used contrasting dichotomy of individuals as Hispanic or white is inappropriate. If we accept the definition of an ethnic group as proposed by Milton Gordon (1964), as one which shares a common history, a common identity or sense of “weness,” and a common culture or subculture, Hispanics obviously do not constitute a single ethnic group but represent many different ethnic groups. Hispanics from different countries have their own particular histories and identities. It is not necessary that individuals know their group’s history nor even personally identify with their ethnic group for them to be members. The group will still exist and the individual will be identified with it by others. Regarding identity, there have been many variations and changes in the terminology used by and/or applied to Hispanics in the United States. Hispanics as a whole have been identified at different times and places as Latino, Latin American, Spanish, Spanish American, Spanish-speaking and Spanish-surname. Specific groups have been known as Californios (Old Mexican families living in California since it became part of the United States), Chicanos (Mexican Americans after 1960), and Neoricanos (Puerto Ricans living in New York and sometimes others living on the mainland). However, the way most Hispanics appear to identify themselves ethnically is by including their ancestral homeland as part of the identity, such as Mexican American, Puerto Rican, Cuban American, etc., rather than using an all-inclusive generic term. However, when speaking more inclusively, the term Latino is most often used. There is no single Hispanic culture or subculture. Although there are some common elements, there are many cultural differences as well. Differences in dress, food, celebrations and customs exist. The most commonly shared cultural elements are the Spanish language, although there are some variations in terminology and pronunciation, the importance of family, and religion. Most, but not all, Hispanics are Catholic, from the Spanish tradition. However, there are national and even regional differences in devotion to particular saints, including the Virgin Mary. Family is very important to Hispanics.