Many Voices, Few Listeners: an analysis of the dialogue between Islam and contemporary Europe. A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Arts in European Studies at the University of Canterbury Valerie Boyce University of Canterbury 2009 2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. The great International Relations theorist Hedley Bull once said, “thinking is research”. Considering this thesis has been relentlessly circulating within the inner recesses of my brain for the past fourteen months, whether sitting at my desk, running in the park or playing with my granddaughter, I hope he is right. I consider it a privilege to have been able to embark on this journey of self-discovery added and abetted by passionate academics whose generosity of time and encouragement has been appreciated, and by loyal friends and family who put up with my neglect of them. I would like to take this opportunity to thank the University of Canterbury and the NCRE for making this thesis possible by providing me with funding, resources, and a stimulating working environment. Special thanks to my supervisory team – Professor Martin Holland and Dr. Barrie Wharton. Thanks to you, Martin, for your guidance and input into this thesis. Thank you also for your untiring dedication to the creation and continuing success of the NCRE, which provides exciting opportunities for so many students. Thanks to you, Barrie, for your energy and encouragement, and critical editing from the other side of the world and I believe we will make a Kiwi of you yet! Thanks to Rebecca not only for your superb organisational skills but also for your constant enthusiasm and your infectious laugh. Thanks also to Sarah and the other Masters and PhD students at the NCRE – our home away from home. Best wishes in your academic futures –you deserve success. Lastly, I would like to dedicate this thesis to the Boyce girls - Lisa, Wendy and Alexis - who fill my life with laughter, and to Lynda and Gareth – you are all extraordinary! 3 ABSTRACT. Enlargement of the European Union (EU) coupled with immigration and rising transnational flows of people has led to increased contact between different cultures, religions, ethnic groups and diverse languages. Historically, the reproduction of ethnic and racial bigotry from generation to generation has marred the European landscape. Cognisant of this, the EU is committed to the development of intercultural competences and the promotion of intercultural dialogue, involving not only public authorities but also civil society. As part of a strategy to build a cohesive integrated „social Europe‟, the EU launched the 2008 European Year of Intercultural Dialogue (EYID) at Ljubijana in Slovenia on January 8. Beneath the carapace of „Unity in Diversity‟, the aim of EYID is to promote a better understanding of Europe‟s complex cultural environment in an effort to move beyond „mere tolerance‟. In recent years, however, increasing tensions involving Europe‟s Muslim population have been exacerbated by their visible difference, youth riots, terrorism and the current global discourse of “clash”. Considering that Europe‟s largest ethnic minority is Muslim, any attempt to foster tolerance through intercultural dialogue could be severely limited by Europe‟s ability to sustain a meaningful dialogue with Islam. Thus, this thesis focuses specifically on dialogue with Islam in contemporary Europe. Its aim is to contribute to the present discussion concerning the perceived need for policy makers and citizens to redefine the space/identity allocated to Europe‟s Muslim population. Beginning with a brief history of Muslim immigration to Europe this dissertation then analyses the marginalisation of these immigrants by the development of institutionalised inequalities. Pursuant to this is an examination of the scholarly debate surrounding the phenomenon of a nascent „European identity‟ and its compatibility, to an equally embryonic „Euro-Muslim identity‟. Using EYID as a tool, this treatise then examines the themes reflected in academic discourse, which emerged from the EU level debates in relation to the acceptance of Europe‟s minorities. As Europe attempts to rethink a broader identity by accepting that immigrants are no longer sojourners but a necessary part of Europe‟s future, this thesis asks, how meaningful was the EYID to the discourse between Europe‟s Muslims and European leaders, policy makers, and civil society? 4 TABLE OF CONTENTS. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. ABSTRACT. LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS. CHAPTER ONE. Introduction. Research Methodology. Literature Review. Structure of this thesis. CHAPTER TWO – HISTORICAL BARRIERS TO DIALOGUE. Introduction – Dealing with Difference. Why Dialogue? Global Dialogue. European Dialogue. Dialogue, Economics and Politics. Dialogue, Human Rights and Racism. Dialogue and Community Action. EYID in Action. Is Dialogue Enough? CHAPTER THREE – EUROPEAN IDENTITY. Introduction. Primordialism versus Constructivism. What is Identity Enlightenment to Modernity. Identity, Nationalism and Minorities. Identity and Globalisation. Identity and Cosmopolitanism. European Identity. 5 CHAPTER FOUR – MUSLIM IDENTITY. Introduction. Primordialism versus Constructivism. Identity – From Guest Worker to Citizen? Identity – The Lens of Islamophobia. Identity – The Lens of Terrorism Emerging Identity – Euro-Islam. Muslims are Europeans too. CHAPTER FIVE – MANY VOICES, FEW LISTENERS Introduction. Debate One – “Integrating Conversations: The Impact of Migration on Intercultural Dialogue”. Debate Two – “Negotiating Differences: A Responsibility of Artists and Cultural Institutions”. Debate Three – “New Horizons: Active Citizenship to Bridge Inter-religious Divides”. Debate Four – “Couscous Culture: is that what Intercultural Dialogue in the workplace is all about?” Debate Five – “Multilingualism: A Bridge or Barrier for Intercultural Dialogue?” Debate Six – “Education: Ready for the Intercultural Exchange?” Debate Seven – “Talking Our Way Out of Trouble: How Media Debate Can Combat Intolerance”. Thematic Analysis: Anti-clash; Immigrants; Political Will; Education; Separation of politics and religion; Identity; Media. CHAPTER SIX – WHISPERS OF CHANGE? Introduction. Concerns and Recommendations. Political Action. Grassroots Action. Conclusion. BIBLIOGRAPHY. 6 LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS. BBC…………………………………………….British Broadcasting Corporation CFCM………………………………………….……Council of the Muslim Faith CMBI……………………...…Commission on British Muslims and Islamophobia CRE……………………………………………....Commission for Racial Equality CSC……………………………………………...Church and Society Commission EC………………………………………………….………Economic Community ECF………………………………………………...European Cultural Foundation ECHR…………………………………….…..European Charter of Human Rights ECSC………………………………………European Coal and Steel Community EEC…………………………….…………….....European Economic Community EFAH………………………………...…...European Forum for Arts and Heritage ENAR………………………………………...European Network Against Racism EPAs…………………………………………..European Partnership Agreements EU………………………………………………………………..European Union EUMC…………….….European Monitoring Centre for Racism and Xenophobia EUNIC…………………………..…European Union National Institute of Culture EURO 88…………………………………………………….…EURO Barometer EYID…………………………..…….....European Year of Intercultural Dialogue FRA………………………………….……………...Fundamental Rights Agency GMF02…………………………………………..German Probability Phone Study ICM………………………………….……………………..ICM Research Centre MDGs………………………………...….……...Millennium Development Goals MEP…………………………………………Member of the European Parliament MFP……………………………………….….............Mouvement pour la France 7 SEA……….........................................................….………..Single European Act ToA…………………………………………………..……..Treaty of Amsterdam UK………………………………………………………………..United Kingdom UN…………………………………………………..………….….United Nations UNESCO…..…United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation YFJ……………………………………………………..…European Youth Forum WW Ι………………………………………………...………...…World War One WW ΙΙ……..………………………………………...…...………World War Two 8 The battle for the hearts and soul of Islam today is taking place between moderates and fanatics, between democrats and dictators, between those who live in the past and those who adapt to the present and plan for a better future. In the resolution of this conflict may in fact lie the direction of international peace in the twenty- first century. (Benazir Bhutto, 2008:19-20) 9 CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION. On the cusp of the 21st century, worldwide concern over a „clash‟ between civilisations colours perceptions, relationships and policies at an international, national, and civic level in European Union (EU) nations.1 Fears of a clash with Islam in Europe are increasing, fuelled by terrorist attacks, racism and Islamophobic tendencies across member states. In response to this escalation of disquiet is a call for tolerance, for mutual understanding, and for the need to deepen communication through intercultural dialogue. Beset by a troubled history concerning its Muslim minorities, the 2008 European Year of Intercultural Dialogue (EYID) offered the EU an opportunity to play a pivotal role in promoting peace through a dialogue with Islam. Intercultural dialogue has the potential to be an important mechanism in the toolbox of integration for Europe‟s Muslim population, and if supported by political and civic will, it may also be instrumental in helping a new generation of Euro- Muslims shape a pluralistic Islam – an Islam, compatible with western