DISSERTATION USING EXPECTANCY THEORY TO EXAMINE OCCUPATIONAL FUTURE TIME PERSPECTIVE WITH SAFETY MOTIVATION AND SAFETY PERFORMANCE Submitted by Madison E. Hanscom Department of Psychology In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado Spring 2020 Doctoral Committee: Advisor: Jeanette Cleveland Alyssa Gibbons Kevin Murphy Lynn Shore Mark Prince Copyright by Madison E. Hanscom 2020 All Rights Reserved ABSTRACT USING EXPECTANCY THEORY TO EXAMINE OCCUPATIONAL FUTURE TIME PERSPECTIVE WITH SAFETY MOTIVATION AND SAFETY PERFORMANCE By better understanding employee safety motivation, organizations have the potential to reduce work-related accidents and injuries by improving motivation and safety behaviors. In the present study, the construct domain of safety motivation is expanded through the theoretical lens of expectancy theory by utilizing three components of safety motivation (i.e., valence of safety outcomes, instrumentality of safety outcomes, and expectancy) in addition to the most commonly utilized facet of safety motivation (i.e., safety importance). When these motivational facets were examined with three types of safety performance in the same model, results showed different relationships depending upon the safety performance outcome. The two motivational facets that showed the strongest relationships with safety compliance were both safety expectancy and safety importance. Safety expectancy was the strongest predictor of both safety participation and safety initiative. These findings indicate that expectancy theory can be applied within the safety space to explain the utility of safety motivation in predicting multiple types of safety performance. In a separate model, intrinsic and extrinsic components of valence and instrumentality were also examined, illustrating differential relationships with safety performance when these constructs are considered separately. As the age of the workforce increases, it is also important to understand how perceived time horizon might be associated with safety motivation and safety performance. In the present study, occupational future time perspective (OFTP; defined as a worker’s perception of their ii remaining time and perceived opportunities left in their career) was examined as potential predictors of the multifaceted view of safety motivation. Results indicated as an individual’s perceived opportunities at work increases, this was associated with an increase in all facets of safety motivation and performance; however, as one’s remaining time increases at work, this was associated with weak negative relationships or no significant relationship with safety motivation. These results are discussed in relation to previous research and theory. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................... ii CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................... 1 Work Motivation ......................................................................................................................... 4 Main Conceptualizations of Work Motivation ....................................................................... 4 The Measurement of Work Motivation .................................................................................. 6 Expectancy Theory ..................................................................................................................... 7 The Evolution of Expectancy Theory ..................................................................................... 9 Work Motivation and the Lifespan ........................................................................................... 12 Lifespan Theory .................................................................................................................... 13 Alternative Age Constructs ................................................................................................... 15 Occupational Future Time Perspective ................................................................................. 17 Safety Motivation...................................................................................................................... 19 The Need for More Safety Motivation Research .................................................................. 21 Advantages to Studying Multiple Types of Safety Motivation ............................................ 22 Expectancy Theory in the Safety Literature and Current Study ........................................... 23 Intrinsic and Extrinsic Safety Motivation ............................................................................. 29 The Perception of Time and Safety Motivation ........................................................................ 31 Occupational Future Time Perspective and Motivation ....................................................... 33 Occupational Future Time Perspective and Valence ............................................................ 34 Occupational Future Time Perspective and Instrumentality ................................................. 39 Occupational Future Time Perspective and Expectancy ...................................................... 40 Occupational Future Time Perspective and Safety Importance ............................................ 41 The Role of Safety Climate in the Relationship between Occupational Future Time Perspective and Safety Motivation ........................................................................................... 41 Safety Motivation and Safety Performance .............................................................................. 45 The Present Study ................................................................................................................. 47 Valence Safety Motivation ................................................................................................... 48 Instrumentality Safety Motivation ........................................................................................ 50 Expectancy Safety Motivation .............................................................................................. 50 Safety Importance ................................................................................................................. 51 Occupational Future Time Perspective and Safety Performance ............................................. 53 Chronological Age and Safety .............................................................................................. 53 iv Occupational Future Time Perspective and Safety ............................................................... 54 Occupational Future Time Perspective and Safety Compliance........................................... 55 Occupational Future Time Perspective and Safety Participation ......................................... 56 Occupational Future Time Perspective and Safety Initiative ............................................... 57 Research Questions ................................................................................................................... 59 CHAPTER 2: METHOD .............................................................................................................. 63 Participants ................................................................................................................................ 63 Data Cleaning........................................................................................................................ 66 Power Analysis ..................................................................................................................... 67 Design ....................................................................................................................................... 68 Measures ................................................................................................................................... 70 Occupational Future Time Perspective ................................................................................. 70 Valence of Safety Outcomes ................................................................................................. 70 Instrumentality of Safety Outcomes ..................................................................................... 71 Safety Expectancy ................................................................................................................. 72 Safety Importance ................................................................................................................. 72 Safety Compliance ................................................................................................................ 72 Safety Participation ............................................................................................................... 73 Safety Initiative ..................................................................................................................... 73 Safety Climate ....................................................................................................................... 74 CHAPTER 3: RESULTS .......................................................................................................... 75 Descriptive Statistics 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