East African Community Regional Integration: Trade and Gender Implications UNITED NATIONS CONFERENCE ON TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT East African Community Regional Integration: Trade and Gender Implications © 2018, United Nations This work is available open access by complying with the Creative Commons licence created for intergovernmental organizations, available at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/igo/. The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the United Nations or its officials or Member States. The designation employed and the presentation of material on any map in this work do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the United Nations concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. Photocopies and reproductions of excerpts are allowed with proper credits. This publication has been edited externally. United Nations publication issued by the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development. UNCTAD/DITC/2017/2 iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study is the result of a collaboration between UNCTAD’s Trade, Gender and Development Programme and TradeMark East Africa (TMEA) within the UNCTAD-TMEA Cooperation on Trade Facilitation and Trade and Gender Project. The trade and gender component of the project was generously financed by the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The report was prepared by an UNCTAD team including Nursel Aydiner-Avsar (lead author), Burak Onemli, and Bastiaan Quast. A number of colleagues at UNCTAD and TMEA provided comments and suggestions on previous versions of the report, including Lisa Borgatti, Judit Kozenkow, Mariangela Linoci, Maria Masood, Alessandro Nicita, Giulia Nucciarone, Jacqueline Salguero Huaman, Julia Seiermann, and Simonetta Zarrilli at UNCTAD; and Waturi Matu, Makena Mwiti, Lisa Karanja, Gloria Atuheirwe, and Eugene Torero at TMEA. Manuela Tortora peer-reviewed the report. Comments, suggestions, and reviews greatly contributed to improve and enrich the study, and they are gratefully acknowledged. The report was coordinated and supervised by Simonetta Zarrilli, Chief of the Trade, Gender and Development Programme at UNCTAD. Design and layout were created by Ornella Baldini and Jacqueline Salguero Huaman. David Einhorn was in charge of English editing. iv EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY REGIONAL INTEGRATION: TRADE AND GENDER IMPLICATIONS TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .............................................................................................. III LIST OF BOXES ........................................................................................................... V LIST OF FIGURES ......................................................................................................... V LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................... VI LIST OF ABBREViations ............................................................................................ VII EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................... IX INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ XIII 1. ECONOMIC AND GENDER PROFILES OF EAC MEMBER staTES .................................. 2 1.1. COUNTRY PROFILES ..................................................................................................................... 2 1.1.1. Brief country overviews ..................................................................................................... 2 1.1.2. Selected economic and social indicators .......................................................................... 3 1.1.2.1. Economic indicators ................................................................................................ 3 1.1.2.2. Social indicators ...................................................................................................... 6 1.1.3. Trade profiles and trade developments ............................................................................. 7 1.1.3.1. Trade structure ........................................................................................................ 8 1.1.3.2. Trade policies and practices................................................................................... 13 1.2. GENDER PROFILES ..................................................................................................................... 18 1.2.1. Gender situation in a comparative perspective ................................................................ 18 1.2.1.1. Education .............................................................................................................. 18 1.2.1.2. Access to economic resources, assets, and opportunities ..................................... 20 1.2.1.3. Women’s agency and participation in decision-making processes ......................... 33 1.2.2. Gender-related policies and social institutions ................................................................. 34 1.2.2.1. Comparative legal and institutional framework for gender equality .......................... 34 2. EMPIRICAL analysis............................................................................................ 42 2.1. TRANSMISSION CHANNELS ....................................................................................................... 42 2.2. MACRO ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................................... 43 2.3. MICRO ANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................ 44 2.3.1. Data and methodology ................................................................................................... 45 2.3.2. Empirical findings ............................................................................................................ 47 3. MAIN FINDINGS AND POLICY recommendations ................................................ 54 ANNEX: EMPIRICAL analysis .................................................................................. 59 REFERENCES ............................................................................................................ 60 v LIST OF BOXES BOX 1. THE EAST AFRICAN COMMUNITY CUSTOMS UNION AND COMMON MARKET ..................................................................... 3 BOX 2. DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION ..................................................................................................... 16 BOX 3. THE GENDER GAP IN AGRICULTURE AND CASE STUDIES OF KENYA AND UGANDA ............................................................ 21 BOX 4. CERTIFICATION SCHEMES AND GENDER EQUALITY IN AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION IN RWANDA, THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA, AND UGANDA ............................................................................................................................................................ 23 BOX 5. GENDER WAGE GAPS IN THE UNITED REPUBLIC OF TANZANIA AND UGANDA ................................................................... 26 BOX 6. WOMEN AS INFORMAL CROSS-BORDER TRADERS IN THE EAC ....................................................................................... 29 BOX 7. REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEGAL COMMITMENTS ON GENDER EQUALITY BY EAC MEMBER STATES ...................... 35 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. GDP AND POPULATION INDICATORS IN 2016 ................................................................................................................ 4 FIGURE 2. SECTORAL COMPOSITION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN THE EAC AND SSA, 1990–2016 (per cenT SHARES) ................. 5 FIGURE 3. SECTORAL COMPOSITION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITY IN EAC PARTNER STATES AND SSA, 2016 (PER CENT SHARES) ...... 6 FIGURE 4. HUMAN DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER INEQUALITY INDICES IN EAC PARTNER STATES AND SSA ................................... 8 FIGURE 5. TRADE FLOWS IN THE EAC AND SSA (PER CENT OF GDP) ............................................................................................. 9 FIGURE 6. SECTORAL COMPOSITION OF EAC TRADE WITH THE REST OF THE WORLD BETween 2002–2004 and 2010–2012 (PER CENT SHARES)................................................................................................................................................................... 10 FIGURE 7. GEOGRAPHIC COMPOSITION OF EAC TRADE WITH THE REST OF THE WORLD BETween 2002–2004 and 2010–2012 (PER CENT SHARES)................................................................................................................................................................... 11 FIGURE 8. CONCENTRATION INDEX IN EAC PARTNER STATES BETween 2002–2004 and 2010–2012 ....................................... 12 FIGURE 9. APPLIED TARIFF RATES IN EAC PARTNER STATES IN 2005 AND 2010 (TRADE-WEIGHTED AVERAGES, PER CENT RATE) 12 FIGURE 10. DIFFERENT DIMENSIONS OF REGIONAL INTEGRATION IN EAC PARTNER STATES ...................................................... 16 FIGURE 11. LITERACY RATES IN EAC PARTNER STATES AND SSA (PER CENT) ............................................................................. 18 FIGURE 12. GROSS ENROLMENT RATES IN EAC PARTNER STATES AND SSA (PER CENT) ............................................................ 19 FIGURE 13. COMPOSITION OF MALE AND