The Pennsylvania State University The Graduate School SOUTH KOREAN ENTRY-LEVEL JOBSEEKERS’ ENGLISH-LANGUAGE LEARNING IN THE NEOLIBERAL JOB MARKET A Dissertation in Applied Linguistics by Miso Kim © 2020 Miso Kim Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy May 2020 ii The dissertation of Miso Kim was reviewed and approved by the following: Suresh Canagarajah Edwin Erle Sparks Professor of Applied Linguistics, English, and Asian Studies Dissertation Advisor Chair of Committee Celeste Kinginger Professor of Applied Linguistics Mari Haneda Associate Professor of Education and Applied Linguistics Matthew E. Poehner Professor of Education and Applied Linguistics Robert Schrauf Professor of Applied Linguistics Department Head iii ABSTRACT The dissertation examines South Korean entry-level white-collar jobseekers’ negotiation of neoliberal employment requirements, reasons for studying English, and use of tools and resources for English learning. Although previous studies have problematized neoliberalism and English in South Korea (J. S.-Y. Park, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2018; J. S.-Y. Park & Wee, 2015; Piller & J. Cho, 2013), relatively few studies have considered how Korean jobseekers who have to develop English skills to enhance their competitiveness in the job market negotiate the demands of neoliberalism. There is even less research on how to provide appropriate educational support for them. To this end, I designed and implemented an eight-week exploratory program that aimed at developing jobseekers’ English skills using their own tools and resources based on an ecological perspective (van Lier, 2000, 2004). The study addressed the following research questions: 1. How do the Korean jobseekers interpret and negotiate the neoliberal norms of employability in the job market? 2. For what reasons do the Korean jobseekers study for the standardized English tests and develop oral English proficiency? 3. If opportunities can be provided to study English in a flexible setting, how do the Korean jobseekers, who have had little experience speaking English, create their own ways of developing their English speaking skills to achieve their goals? Employing thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006), the study analyzed six participants’ data collected during the program, which included interviews, narratives, self-assessments, participant-provided tools and resources, worksheet responses, and video recordings of classroom interactions. The analysis showed that the influence of neoliberalism differed based on gender and age. The male participants coped with the pressure of neoliberalism by adapting themselves to meet the demands of corporations, whereas the female participants chose to leave Korea to iv pursue less competitive lives. The male participants developed their English skills to outperform others and demonstrate their effort, seeing English as an instrument for job-seeking. In contrast, the female participants did so to talk about topics of their own interest and move abroad, viewing English a tool for freedom. All of the participants, when given the opportunity, were able to mobilize a number of tools and resources to create their own ways of learning English. Based on these findings, I argue for the continued intersectional analysis of neoliberalism and representation of diverse learners’ negotiations of neoliberalism and English learning. I also provide pedagogical implications for expanding the boundaries of language-learning materials and creating meaningful affordances for learning. v TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................ viii LIST OF TABLES .............................................................................................................. x ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................ xi Chapter 1 Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background and context ........................................................................................ 1 1.2 Problem statement and research questions .............................................................. 2 1.3 The researcher ....................................................................................................... 4 1.4 Organization of the dissertation.............................................................................. 4 Chapter 2 Neoliberalism in the job market and English-language learning .......................... 7 2.1 The definition of neoliberalism .............................................................................. 7 2.2 Neoliberalism in the job market ............................................................................. 9 2.3 English in the neoliberal job market ....................................................................... 11 2.4 A gap in the literature on neoliberalism .................................................................. 14 2.5 Chapter summary................................................................................................... 16 Chapter 3 Neoliberalism and English-language teaching for Korean jobseekers .................. 18 3.1 The history of neoliberalism in Korea .................................................................... 18 3.2 The influence of neoliberalism on the Korean Jobseekers: “Hell Joseon” discourse .............................................................................................................. 21 3.2.1 Neoliberalism in the Korean recruitment process: Gongchae system ............ 23 3.2.2 Neoliberalism’s role in expanding horizons of globalization through geographic mobility ...................................................................................... 24 3.3 English in the Korean job market ........................................................................... 26 3.3.1 Standardized English tests: Behind the myth of “valid indicators of English proficiency” ..................................................................................... 26 3.3.2 The rise of “real” English proficiency .......................................................... 30 3.4 The gap in the English-language teaching for the jobseekers .................................. 31 3.4.1. The gap between English education in Korea and the demand of English proficiency ................................................................................................... 32 3.4.2. Developing a pedagogical program: An ecological perspective ................... 34 3.5 Chapter summary................................................................................................... 37 Chapter 4 Methodology ...................................................................................................... 39 4.1 Research design ..................................................................................................... 39 4.2 Participants ............................................................................................................ 40 4.2.1 Participant selection criteria ......................................................................... 40 4.2.2 Participant recruitment ................................................................................ 42 vi 4.2.3 Participant profiles ...................................................................................... 44 4.3 The eight-week exploratory program...................................................................... 46 4.3.1 Rationale for the program ............................................................................ 46 4.3.2 Organization of the program ........................................................................ 52 4.3.3 The researcher’s role in the program ............................................................ 56 4.4. Data collection ...................................................................................................... 57 4.5 Data analysis ......................................................................................................... 64 4.6 Reflexivity: The researcher’s positionality and research relationships ..................... 70 4.7 Chapter summary................................................................................................... 74 Chapter 5 The jobseekers’ interpretation and negotiation of neoliberal norms ..................... 76 5.1 The participants’ job motivations and experiences.................................................. 76 5.2 Developing human capital: Male participants ......................................................... 78 5.2.1 Competition in the gongchae process as a legitimate rite of passage............. 79 5.2.2 Molding themselves into “injaesang” .......................................................... 83 5.2.3 The ambivalent nature of passion: The collusion between neoliberalism and passion ................................................................................................... 87 5.3 Leaving “Hell Joseon”: Female participants ........................................................... 92 5.3.1 Questioning the intense competition in the Korean job market ..................... 92 5.3.2 Decisions to study or work abroad ............................................................... 99 5.3.3 Passion expanded: Neoliberalism and passion on a global scale ..................