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Coaching Behaviours and the Motivation of Paralympic Athletes Hailey Banack A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Kinesiology and Physical Education In the Faculty of Education McGill University, Montreal February, 2009 Library and Archives Bibliothèque et Canada Archives Canada Published Heritage Direction du Branch Patrimoine de l’édition 395 Wellington Street 395, rue Wellington Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Ottawa ON K1A 0N4 Canada Canada Your file Votre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-56810-1 Our file Notre référence ISBN: 978-0-494-56810-1 NOTICE: AVIS: The author has granted a non- L’auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive exclusive license allowing Library and permettant à la Bibliothèque et Archives Archives Canada to reproduce, Canada de reproduire, publier, archiver, publish, archive, preserve, conserve, sauvegarder, conserver, transmettre au public communicate to the public by par télécommunication ou par l’Internet, prêter, telecommunication or on the Internet, distribuer et vendre des thèses partout dans le loan, distribute and sell theses monde, à des fins commerciales ou autres, sur worldwide, for commercial or non- support microforme, papier, électronique et/ou commercial purposes, in microform, autres formats. paper, electronic and/or any other formats. The author retains copyright L’auteur conserve la propriété du droit d’auteur ownership and moral rights in this et des droits moraux qui protège cette thèse. Ni thesis. Neither the thesis nor la thèse ni des extraits substantiels de celle-ci substantial extracts from it may be ne doivent être imprimés ou autrement printed or otherwise reproduced reproduits sans son autorisation. without the author’s permission. In compliance with the Canadian Conformément à la loi canadienne sur la Privacy Act some supporting forms protection de la vie privée, quelques may have been removed from this formulaires secondaires ont été enlevés de thesis. cette thèse. While these forms may be included Bien que ces formulaires aient inclus dans in the document page count, their la pagination, il n’y aura aucun contenu removal does not represent any loss manquant. of content from the thesis. ii Abstract There are approximately 4.4 million Canadians (14%) with a physical disability, yet less than 1% of these individuals participate in organized sport programs (Sport Canada, 2006; Statistics Canada, 2007). Using Self-Determination Theory (SDT) as a framework, the purpose of the current study was to examine the relationship between Paralympic athletes‟ perceptions of coach behaviour, psychological needs satisfaction, and motivation. The participants in this study were 113 Canadian Paralympic athletes. Participants completed an online survey comprised of the Sport Climate Questionnaire (Deci & Ryan, 2006), measures of perceived autonomy (Hollembeak & Amorose, 2005), competence (Hollembeak & Amorose, 2005), relatedness (Richer & Vallerand, 1998) and the Sport Motivation Scale (Pelletier et al., 1995). Confirmatory factor analysis was used to test the measurement model. Path modeling was used to test the relationships among perceptions of coach behaviour, the basic psychological needs of competence, autonomy, and relatedness, and motivation. Findings from the path model partially supported the tenets of SDT. There was a significant relationship between perceptions of coach behaviour and perceived autonomy and relatedness. Autonomy and competence were significant correlates of motivation. Results revealed the presence of a relationship between perceptions of autonomy supportive coaching strategies, the three psychological needs, and athletes‟ intrinsic motivation towards sport. These findings hold theoretical and practical significance as they underscore the importance of using autonomy supportive coaching strategies to promote motivation in Paralympic athletes. iii Résumé Environ 4.4 millions de canadiens souffrent d‟un handicap physique, par contre moins de 1% de ces individus prennent part à des programmes de sport organisé (Statistiques Canada, 2007). En utilisant le Self-Determination Theory (SDT) en tant que cadre, l'objectif de la présente étude était d'examiner la relation entre la perception du comportement de l'entraîneur par les athlètes paralympiques, la satisfaction des besoins psychologiques, et la motivation. Les participants sont 113 athlètes Paralympiques Canadiens. Ils ont complété un questionnaire en ligne, composé de Sport Climate Questionnaire (Deci & Ryan, 2006), une mesure de la perception de l‟autonomie (Hollembeak & Amorose, 2005), des compétences (Hollembeak & Amorose, 2005) et du sentiment d‟appartenance (Richer & Vallerand, 1998) ainsi que le Sport Motivation Scale (Pelletier et al, 1995). La confirmation de l'analyse factorielle a été utilisée pour tester la validité factorielle de l'échelle. Le sentier de modélisation a été utilisé pour tester les relations entre la perception du comportement des entraineurs, les besoins psychologiques de base de la compétence, l'autonomie et la parenté, la motivation et le sport. L‟appréciation de la voie modèle appuie les principes du traitement spécial et différencié et a confirmé la présence d'une relation entre l'autonomie de soutien, le comportement, la satisfaction des besoins, et la motivation. Il existe une relation significative entre le comportement des entraîneurs et deux des besoins (autonomie et appartenance). En autre, l'autonomie et la compétence sont en corrélation significative avec la motivation. Ces résultats ont des implications théoriques et pratiques puisqu‟ils soulignent l‟importance de l‟autonomie et de l‟utilisation de stratégies d‟entraînements pour promouvoir la motivation chez les athlètes Paralympiques. iv Acknowledgements I would like to thank the following individuals who helped me in the completion of this thesis: Dr. Gordon Bloom, who has been my advisor throughout this entire process. His guidance, support, and knowledge have been invaluable. You always challenge me and push me to be the best I can be. Thank you for all of your patience and honest feedback on the many drafts it took me to get this document „just right‟. My thesis co-supervisor, Dr. Cathi Sabiston, who played an instrumental role in the completion of this project. Her statistical knowledge and thorough knowledge of self-determination theory have been very helpful. Your constant encouragement and insightful comments have allowed me to become the student I am today. Thank you for everything. Dr. Billy Harvey, who was on my colloquium committee. You brought a wealth of knowledge about disability sport to the table. Thank you for your many helpful suggestions and constant inquiries as to how I was holding up. Helena Seymour and Dean Kozak of the Canadian Paralympic Committee, who graciously assisted me in recruiting athletes to participate in the study. Even though they were incredibly busy getting ready for the Beijing Games, Helena and Dean found time to help and played an important role in the completion of this study. v Thank you to all of the Paralympians who participated in this study. I will forever be a supporter of Paralymipic sport and look forward to celebrating your many podium finishes in Vancouver. Thank you to all of the sport and exercise psychology graduate students for providing me with moral support and many, many laughs over the past few years. Special thanks to Caitlin and Holly who spent many hours next to me in “the cave” and helped me handle the ups and downs of my graduate school experience. To Emily, who hasn‟t left my side since the fifth grade, and still provides advice and encouragement on a daily basis. Em, words can‟t even express how important your support has been to me. Thank you for the many hugs, laughs, and penny candy runs. Matt, thank you for helping me make it to the finish line. Thank you for picking me up after my falls and always, always having my back. I will be forever grateful. And finally, to my family, for being my number one fans and always standing by my side. Mom and Dad, thank you for always being by my side. I know (firsthand) that I can call you 24 hours a day for support. You two are my role models for everything I do. Adam, if everyone could have a brother like you the world would be a better place. You were my protector and shoulder to lean on, thank you for your advice and guidance. And to Mara, the world‟s most אין חברה כאחות ואין אחות כאחותי :responsible and mature younger sister vi Table of Contents Page Abstract . ii Résumé . iii Acknowledgements . iv Table of Contents . vi List of Tables . x List of Figures . xi CHAPTER 1. 1 Introduction . 1 Purpose of the Study . 9 Hypotheses. 9 Significance of the Study . 10 Delimitations and Limitations . 11 Operational Definitions . 11 CHAPTER 2 . 13 Literature Review . 13 Self-Determination Theory . 13 Coaching Science . 19 Motivational Model of the Coach-Athlete Relationship . 22 Antecedents of Coach Behaviour . 23 Personal Orientation . 23 Coaching Context . 23 vii Perception of Athletes‟ Behaviour and Motivation 24 Autonomy Supportive Coaching Behaviours . 25 Outcomes of Coaching Behaviour . 26 Perceptions of Autonomy, Competence, and Relatedness . 26 Motivational Outcomes . 27 Disability Sport . 27 A Brief History of the Paralympic Movement. 27 Coaching Athletes with a Physical Disability . 30 CHAPTER 3 . 33 Method . 33 Participants . 33 Procedure . 35 Measures . 36 Coaching Behaviour . 37 Perceived Competence,