Perler fra vikingtiden (Beads of the Viking-Age). A study of the social and economic patterns in the appearance of beads from Viking-Age sites in Britain. Megan Kathleen Hickey Master of Arts by Research University of York Archaeology September 2014 Abstract To date there has been no comprehensive, broad study of Viking-Age beads from sites in Britain. In order to fill this gap in Viking-Age literature, this study intends to present a characterisation of Viking-Age bead finds in Britain and an analysis of the social and economic processes which have influenced patterns in the appearance of this artefact type. In order to incorporate the widest dataset, this study has used finds from secondary literature on ‘Viking’ sites dating to the 9th to 12th century. This study aims to characterise the bead forms presented in the secondary literature and connect the resulting types to key ideas in academic discussions of the social and economic patterns during Viking-Age Scandinavia and Britain. To achieve this goal, this study aims to take a multi-scale approach to the study of Viking-Age bead types. Local, regional and global networks are considered in the presentation of the bead finds and the analysis of social and economic processes. Specifically, production, trade and use are highlighted as the most useful processes to analyse in this study. It is argued here that these processes have had the greatest influence on the patterns in the appearance of this artefact in the archaeological record. This study will demonstrate that patterns of bead finds shaped by production, trade and use can be used to highlight and discuss the close relationships between local and Viking World networks of communication and trade. II Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................. II List of Tables....................................................................................................................... VI List of Figures .................................................................................................................... VII List of Maps ........................................................................................................................ IX List of accompanying material .............................................................................................. X Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. XI Author’s Declaration .......................................................................................................... XII Chapter 1: Introduction .......................................................................................................... 1 Theoretical framework ....................................................................................................... 2 The Viking-Age in Britain .................................................................................................. 3 Vikings, Scandinavians and Anglo-Scandinavians ............................................................ 3 The Sources ........................................................................................................................ 4 Aims.................................................................................................................................... 7 Introduction to the material .............................................................................................. 10 The raw material ........................................................................................................... 10 The appearance of bead types in Scandinavia............................................................... 14 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 26 Chapter 2: Beads in the Viking World: Scandinavia and the West ..................................... 27 Studies of the Viking-Age beads in Scandinavia ............................................................. 27 Crafts, urbanism and trade in the Viking-Age .................................................................. 28 Burial sites: beads, society and burial rituals in Viking-Age Scandinavia ....................... 33 Beads in Britain: a literature review ................................................................................. 38 Typologies, and chronological phases of bead types the Anglo-Saxon period............. 38 Beads in Anglo-Saxon grave assemblages .................................................................... 40 The production of glass beads: Anglo-Saxon to Viking-Age England ......................... 41 The production of non-glass beads: identification of raw materials ............................. 45 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 46 Chapter 3: The Viking-Age in Britain: history and sites ..................................................... 47 Viking-Age Scotland ........................................................................................................ 47 Orkney and Shetland ..................................................................................................... 48 Caithness and Inverness ................................................................................................ 52 III The Hebrides and Argyll & Bute .................................................................................. 54 Dumfries & Galloway ................................................................................................... 56 Viking-Age Isle of Man .................................................................................................... 57 The Irish Sea system ......................................................................................................... 60 Viking-Age Wales ............................................................................................................ 61 Viking-Age England ......................................................................................................... 62 The Danelaw ................................................................................................................. 63 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 66 Chapter 4: Methodology ...................................................................................................... 68 Bead classifications .......................................................................................................... 68 Bead characterisation ........................................................................................................ 70 Raw Material ................................................................................................................. 71 Shape ............................................................................................................................. 72 Colour ............................................................................................................................ 75 Decoration ..................................................................................................................... 77 The production and trade of beads ................................................................................... 81 Beads in burial contexts .................................................................................................... 82 Summary ........................................................................................................................... 83 Chapter 5: Results ................................................................................................................ 84 The character of the assemblage ....................................................................................... 84 The raw material ........................................................................................................... 85 The glass types .............................................................................................................. 87 Production and trade ......................................................................................................... 96 Local resources and local production ............................................................................ 96 Locally produced vs. imported amber beads............................................................... 100 Evidence for importation............................................................................................. 103 Imported decorated glass bead types........................................................................... 104 Distribution ..................................................................................................................... 106 The distribution of amber beads .................................................................................. 107 The distribution of beads of jet and jet-like materials................................................. 109 Beads in the context of burial sites ................................................................................. 111 The use of beads as display goods .............................................................................. 111 IV The determination