ENHANCING THE PRODUCTION EFFECT IN MEMORY: SINGING, UNDERLYING MECHANISMS, AND APPLICATIONS by Chelsea Karmel Quinlan Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia December 2017 © Copyright by Chelsea Karmel Quinlan, 2017 TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................... v LIST OF FIGURES ....................................................................... vi ABSTRACT ................................................................................ vii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED .................................................. viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................ ix CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ......................................................... 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................. 2 1.2 HISTORY OF THE PRODUCTION EFFECT ........................................................... 4 1.3 A REVIEW OF THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES .................................................. 11 1.4 MUSIC AND MEMORY ....................................................................................... 17 1.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY, RATIONALE, AND CURRENT EXPERIMENTS ................ 19 CHAPTER 2: EXTENDING THE BOUNDARIES OF THE PRODUCTION EFFECT .................................................................................... 24 2.1 ABSTRACT ......................................................................................................... 25 2.2 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 25 2.3 EXPERIMENT 1 ................................................................................................. 29 2.3.1 Method ......................................................................................... 30 2.3.2 Results ......................................................................................... 35 2.3.3 Discussion ................................................................................... 36 2.4 EXPERIMENT 2 ................................................................................................. 37 2.4.1 Method ......................................................................................... 38 2.4.2 Results ......................................................................................... 38 2.4.3 Discussion ................................................................................... 40 2.5 EXPERIMENT 3 .................................................................................................. 41 2.5.1 Method ......................................................................................... 42 2.5.2 Results ......................................................................................... 44 2.5.3 Discussion ................................................................................... 46 2.6 GENERAL DISCUSSION ..................................................................................... 47 2.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... 53 ii CHAPTER 3: IS SINGING SIMPLY AN UNUSUAL TASK? TESTING A BIZARRENESS ACCOUNT ............................................................ 54 3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 54 3.2 EXPERIMENT 4 ................................................................................................. 57 3.2.1 Method ......................................................................................... 59 3.2.2 Results ......................................................................................... 60 3.2.3 Discussion ................................................................................... 62 CHAPTER 4: DOES PRODUCTION TIME INFLUENCE THE PRODUCTION EFFECT FOR SINGING? ........................................... 68 4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 68 4.2 EXPERIMENT 5 .................................................................................................. 70 4.2.1 Method ......................................................................................... 72 4.2.2 Results ......................................................................................... 73 4.2.3 Discussion ................................................................................... 74 4.3 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...................................................................................... 79 CHAPTER 5: TESTING A STRENGTH-BASED ACCOUNT OF THE PRODUCTION EFFECT FOR SINGING ............................................ 81 5.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 81 5.2 EXPERIMENT 6 ................................................................................................. 85 5.2.1 Method ......................................................................................... 86 5.2.2 Results ......................................................................................... 88 5.2.3 Discussion ................................................................................... 89 CHAPTER 6: GENERAL DISCUSSION ............................................. 94 6.1 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS ................................................................................... 94 6.2 CONNECTION TO A DISTINCTIVENESS ACCOUNT AND PAST FINDINGS ....... 99 6.3 ALTERNATIVE THEORETICAL VIEWS: RULED OUT ....................................... 103 6.4 COMPONENT PROCESSES UNDERLYING THE PRODUCTION EFFECT FOR SINGING ..................................................................................................................... 108 6.4.1 Costs and Benefits Analysis .............................................. 111 6.4.2 Relation to Theoretical Accounts of the Production Effect … ...................................................................................................... 113 6.4.3 Relation to the Distinctiveness Account ....................... 116 6.5 APPLICATIONS ................................................................................................. 118 iii 6.5.1 Education .................................................................................. 118 6.5.2 Clinical ....................................................................................... 120 6.6 CONCLUSION ................................................................................................... 124 BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................................................................... 126 APPENDIX A COPYRIGHT AGREEMENT AND PERMISSIONS .......... 140 APPENDIX B EXPERIMENT 1: EXAMPLE OF EXPERIMENT INSTRUCTIONS ....................................................................... 142 APPENDIX C ADDITIONAL ANALYSES FOR EXPERIMENT 1 ........... 143 APPENDIX D ADDITIONAL ANALYSES FOR EXPERIMENT 2 ........... 144 APPENDIX E ADDITIONAL ANALYSES FOR EXPERIMENT 3 ........... 145 APPENDIX F ADDITIONAL ANALYSES FOR EXPERIMENT 4 ........... 146 APPENDIX G ADDITIONAL ANALYSES FOR EXPERIMENT 5 ........... 147 APPENDIX H ADDITIONAL ANALYSES FOR EXPERIMENT 6 ........... 148 APPENDIX I ADDITIONAL ANALYSES FOR COSTS AND BENEFITS . 149 iv LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Means (and standard deviations) for the proportion of hits as well as foil false alarms as a function of Experiment (Experiment 1, Experiment 2, Experiment 3) and condition (Sing, Read Aloud Loudly, Read Aloud, Read Silently). .................................................................................................................... 35 Table 2: Means (and standard deviations) for the proportion of hits as well as foil false alarms as a function of condition (Sing, Read Aloud, Read Silently). ...................... 39 Table 3: Means (and standard deviations) for the proportion of hits as well as foil false alarms as a function of condition (Sing, Read Aloud Loudly, Read Aloud, Read Silently) .......................................................................................................... 45 Table 4: Means (and standard deviations) for the proportion of hits as well as foil false alarms as a function of condition (Sing, Read Aloud, Read Silently). ............. 60 Table 5: Means (and standard deviations) for the proportion of hits as well as foil false alarms as a function of condition (Sing Quickly, Read Aloud Slowly, Read Silently). .................................................................................................................... 73 Table 6: Means (and standard deviations) for the proportion of hits as well as foil false alarms as a function of condition (Sing, Read Aloud, Read Silently). ............. 88 Table 7: Summary of study design, production conditions, and magnitude of the production effect (relative to a Read Silently condition) as a function of Experiment. ............................................................................................................... 95 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Experiment 1: The A’ scores on the recognition test as a function of condition (Read Aloud Loudly, Read Aloud, Read Silently); error bars represent one standard error. .................................................................................................... 36 Figure 2: Experiment 2: The A’