SHAPING TORONTO: FEMALE ECONOMY AND AGENCY IN THE CORSET INDUSTRY, 1871-1914 By Alanna M.M. McKnight Master of Arts, York University, Toronto, Ontario, 2012 Bachelor of Arts, York University, Toronto, Ontario, 2009 Diploma in Costume Studies, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, 2003 A dissertation presented to Ryerson University and York University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the joint program of Communication and Culture Toronto, Ontario, Canada, 2018 © Alanna McKnight, 2018 AUTHOR'S DECLARATION FOR ELECTRONIC SUBMISSION OF A DISSERTATION I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this dissertation. This is a true copy of the dissertation, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I authorize Ryerson University to lend this dissertation to other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. I further authorize Ryerson University to reproduce this dissertation by photocopying or by other means, in total or in part, at the request of other institutions or individuals for the purpose of scholarly research. I understand that my dissertation may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract SHAPING TORONTO: FEMALE ECONOMY AND AGENCY IN THE CORSET INDUSTRY, 1871-1914 Alanna McKnight Doctor of Philosophy Communication and Culture Ryerson University, 2018 In amplifying the contours of the body, the corset is an historical site that fashions femininity even as it constricts women’s bodies. This study sits at the intersection of three histories: of commodity consumption, of labour, and of embodiment and subjectivity, arguing that women were active participants in the making, selling, purchasing and wearing of corsets in Toronto, a city that has largely been ignored in fashion history. Between 1871 and 1914 many women worked in large urban factories, and in small, independent manufacturing shops. Toronto’s corset manufacturers were instrumental in the urbanization of Canadian industry, and created employment in which women earned a wage. The women who bought their wares were consumers making informed purchases, enacting agency in consumption and aesthetics; by choosing the style or size of a corset, female consumers were able to control to varying degrees, the shape of their bodies. As a staple in the wardrobe of most nineteenth-century women, the corset complicates the study of conspicuous consumption, as it was a garment that was not meant to be seen, but created a highly visible shape, blurring the lines between private and public viewing of the female body. Marxist analysis of the commodity fetish informs this study, and by acknowledging the ways in which the corset became a fetishized object itself, both signaling the shapeliness of femininity while in fact augmenting and diminishing female bodies. This study will address critical theory regarding the gaze and subjectivity, fashion, and modernity, exploring the relationship women had with corsets through media and advertising. A material culture iii analysis of extant corsets helps understand how corsets were constructed in Toronto, how the women of Toronto wore them, and to what extent they actually shaped their bodies. Ultimately, it is the aim of this dissertation to eschew common misconceptions about the practice of corsetry and showcase the hidden manner in which women produced goods, labour, and their own bodies in the nineteenth century, within the Canadian context. iv Acknowledgements This dissertation would not have been possible without the continued support of: my family; Evelyn and Richard McKnight, my parents who regaled me with stories of Toronto’s past growing up; Meghan McKnight, my sister, editor, and moral support; Joel McKnight, my brother and comic relief; Mildred Darby, my grandmother born in 1916, and my inspiration to learn about women’s labour. My friends, who were always a support; Irina Lyubchenko, who promoted breaks for nature, wine and adventures; Melissa Clarke, who celebrated small milestones and has been emotional support for years; Dan Guadagnolo, my biggest cheerleader since undergrad and a brilliant historian in his own right; Lou Branchaud, who encouraged me every step with laughter; Nicole Cooper, who introduced me to corsets and taught me how to make them; Karolyn Smardz-Frost, former professor-come-mentor-come-friend who assigned the term paper in undergrad that set this in motion and taught me the importance of researching ordinary people; and all the others who supported and understood my long absences, and celebrated with me; my patient supervisor, Alison Matthews-David, I could not have asked for a more supportive mentor for this process; and my committee Art Blake and Marlis Schweitzer, whose input and support throughout has been invaluable; and finally Paul Moore and Jo Ann Mackie, director and administrator of Communication and Culture, who were always organized and prepared, even when I was not. v Dedication This dissertation is dedicated to all of the women included in these pages, but especially to Elizabeth Bray (d. 1887), whose death is featured in chapter two. This is also dedicated to my grandmother, Mildred Darby, age 102 at the time of completion, who earned a wage her entire life, and provided a role-model of what a strong independent woman is. vi Table of Contents Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ iii Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................................................... v Dedication .................................................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................ viii List of Appendices ....................................................................................................................................... xi Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1 Chapter 1: “Beware of Poor Imitations”: Factory Owners ......................................................................... 44 Chapter 2: “First Class References Required”: Employment and Employees ............................................ 88 Chapter 3: Selling Grace, Buying Comfort, Owning Elegance: Corset Retailing .................................... 123 Chapter 4: Presentations of Corsets in Everyday Life .............................................................................. 165 Chapter 5: Fetish, Fashion, and Corsets Today......................................................................................... 207 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................ 229 Appendix ................................................................................................................................................... 235 Appendix A: Businesses ....................................................................................................................... 235 Appendix B: Employees ....................................................................................................................... 239 Appendix C: Aggregated Employees .................................................................................................... 273 Appendix D: Newspaper Advertising Data .......................................................................................... 275 Appendix E: Map of Toronto, Corset Businesses ................................................................................. 286 Appendix F: Material Culture Data ...................................................................................................... 288 Bibliography ............................................................................................................................................. 291 Secondary Source Bibliography............................................................................................................ 291 Primary Source Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 302 Image Citations ..................................................................................................................................... 311 vii List of Figures Figure 0-1 Minoan Goddess shown wearing tight belt, c. 1600BCE. Royal Ontario Museum. .................. 5 Figure 0-2 Top of medieval lingerie set located in an Austrian castle. C. 1400 CE. Universitat Innsbruck. ...................................................................................................................................................................... 6 Figure 0-3 Still from a British Pathé video showing the extremes of New Look underpinnings, 1948. Via Youtube. ........................................................................................................................................................ 8 Figure 1-1 Advertisement for Crompton's celebrated adjustable corset, showing patent information. From The Globe, October 2, 1877. ......................................................................................................................