Hermitian Operators and their Applications A. S. Hicks (Dated: October 24, 2008) This paper presents an overview of Hermitian operators. The paper introduces the mathematical definition and properties of Hermitian operators, and then discusses their relevance in quantum me- chanics. The one-dimensional particle in a box (PB) system is then discussed and its key principles derived in order to illustrate the use of Hermitian operators in solving quantum mechanical prob- lems. A more complicated 3D PB model of excitons in conjugated polymers (polymers containing alternating single and double carbon-carbon bonds) is then described, portraying the utility of the model to actual physical systems. PACS numbers: I. INTRODUCTION ^ An operator is a rule that transforms a given function H = E (3) 1 into another function . For example,x ^ could be an op- 2 ^ ~ 2 erator that multiplies a given function f(x) by x. If we Here H is the Hamiltonian operator − 2m r + V , of let f(x) = 2x + 3, thenxf ^ (x) = 2x2 + 3x. which is an eigenfunction, and E is the eigenvalue of and corresponds to the total energy of the system. Moreover, let A^ be an operator and f(x) be a function ^ ^ Since observables are measurable physical quantities, on which A can act. If A operating on f(x) returns the the eigenvalues from which they are obtained must be same function f(x) multiplied by a constant k, that is: real. Furthermore, in order to guarantee that the eigen- values are real, the operators corresponding to observ- ables must be Hermitian. Af^ (x) = kf(x); (1) If a wavefunction is not an eigenfunction of a Hermi- tian operator corresponding to an observable, the average then f(x) is an eigenfunction of A^ with eigenvalue k1. (or expectation) value of that property can still be calcu- ^ Next, let A be an operator and let φ and represent lated. The expectation value of a property with operator any two arbitrary, well behaved functions. If the relation A^ can be denoted as hAi and is defined as: Z Z ^ ∗ ∗ ^ Z φ(A ) dτ = (Aφ)dτ (2) hAi = ∗A^ dτ; (4) is satisfied, where dτ is over all space, then A^ is a Her- where is the normalized wavefuntion and dτ is over mitian operator2. Hermitian operators have two proper- all space2. ties that form the basis of quantum mechanics. First, the Applying the second afore-mentioned property of Her- eigenvalues of a Hermitian operator are real (as opposed mitian operators, wavefunctions with different eigenval- to imaginary or complex). Second, the eigenfunctions ues for a particular observable operator must be orthog- of Hermitian operators are orthogonal to each other or onal. can be made orthogonal by taking linear combinations of them. The proofs for these properties are described elsewhere1,2. III. APPLICATIONS The study of the problem of a particle in a box (PB) II. QUANTUM MECHANICAL THEORY provides an instructive view in the application of Hermi- tian operators in quantum mechanics. Within this model, In quantum mechanics, all of the dynamical infor- a particle is assumed to be confined in a box of constant mation of a system is contained within a mathemati- length. Inside this box, the potential V is taken to be cal entity called the wavefunction3, often denoted as . zero, while outside the box, the potential is infinite2. This information can be extracted from the wavefunction Although this model may appear crude at first glance, through the use of operators. Each physical property, for reasons to be explained shortly, it works surprisingly or observable, of interest has a corresponding operator well in calculating the electronic excitations of cyanine which operates on the wavefunction. If the wavefunc- dyes, with results typically within a few percent of ex- tion is an eigenfunction of that particular operator, then perimental values4. In this model, the excited electron is its eigenvalue is the value of that observable3. A prime confined to a box with length equal to that of the chain example of this is embodied in the Schr¨odinger equation: length of the molecule. The length of the chain is given by L = a(k + 1) + b, where a is the length of each -CH=CH- corresponding to position isx ^ = x , so applying Equa- unit (≈249 pm4), k is the number of such units in the tion 4: chain, and b is the length of the terminiating functional groups. Within this length, the electron is allowed to Z L nπx more freely. The success of this model lies in the strong hxi = A2 x sin2( )dx (8) delocalization of the π-bond system of cyanines, resulting 0 L in little variation in bond length and potential along the 4 L chain . Moreover, when this periodic variation in bond or hxi = 2 , meaning that the average position of the length and potential is accounted for via perturbation particle is in the middle of the box. Using the same theory, the first-order corrections to the energy levels are 2 L2 procedure, hx i = 3 . The uncertainty, or standard de- zero, confirming the validity of the unperturbed model4. viation, of the position of the particle can be calculated as follows2: r L2 ∆x = phx2i − hxi2 = (9) 12 The PB model for excitons in conjugated poly- mers (polymers containing alternating single and double carbon-carbon bonds)can be enhanced by expanding the box to three dimensions, accounting for both the elec- FIG. 1: Example Structure of a Cyanine Dye.4 tron and the electron hole, and deriving the Hamiltonian accordingly. The box is now of dimensions a, b and L Here a brief derivation of the one dimensional particle in the respective x, y, and z directions, where the z axis in a box model is given to illustrate the use of Hermi- is aligned with the chain of the molecule. The Hamil- tian operators1{3. The particle is confined to a box from tonian is rewritten to take into account the kinetic en- 0 < x < L, where L is the length of the box, thus the ergies of both the electron and the hole, the Coulombic wavefunction outside the box equals zero. Inside the attraction between the electron and the hole, and a static box, the potential V(x) is zero, so the Schr¨odingerequa- electric field of magnitude F along the chain (z) axis; tion reduces to: meanwhile, the total energy is expressed in terms of the 3D three-dimensional energy gap Eg , which is the energy difference between the conduction band and valence band 2 (see Figure (2)), and the exiton energy eigenvalue E : − ~ r2 = E : (5) eh 2m The solutions of this differential equation are of the form: = A sin(αx) + B cos(αx): (6) 3D 8 Due to the boundary condition that = 0 at x = 0, FIG. 2: Schematic showing bandgap, Eg . B must equal zero. Additionally, due to the boundary nπ condition that = 0 at x = L, α = L , where n is a positive integer. The constant A is determined to be 2 q 2 ~ 2 2 by normalizing the wavefuntion. To find the en- [− (r + r ) + eF ze − eF zh− L 2m∗ e h ergy, the generic solution is substituted back into the Schr¨odingerequation: 2 e 3D ]Ψ(~re; ~rh) = [Eeh − Eg ]Ψ(~re; ~rh) (10) 4π0j~re − ~rhj 2 nπx nπx − ~ r2(A sin( )) = E(A sin( )): (7) 2m L L where the subscripts e and h denote quantities relat- 5 ∗ 2 2 ing to the electron and the hole, respectively and m n h 6 From Equation (7) it can be shown that E = 8mL2 . denotes the effective mass of the electron-hole pair . The Since n is only to take allowed integer values, this shows wavefunction can then be approximated as the following that the energy levels of the system are quantized. product: In order to further illustrate the use of Hermitian oper- ators, the expectation value and uncertainty of the posi- 2 tion for a PB particle are now calculated . The operator Ψ(~re; ~rh) ≈ φa(xe)φa(xh)φb(ye)φb(yh) (ze; zh); (10) 2 5 where φa and φb are the 1D PB wavefunctions derived for the exiton energy can be calculated for varying chain earlier. These terms can then be integrated out7, leav- lengths and agrees excellently with both more expensive 5 ing only the longitudinal wavefunction (ze; zh) in the z computational techniques and experiement . direction. The potential in the z direction can then be approximated as5: IV. CONCLUSION e2 V (ze; zh) = C(z) (11) 4π0 Hermitian operators are operators which satisfy the 1 R ^ ∗ R ∗ ^ Where C(z) = C(ze − zh) jzj [1 − exp(−pjzj)] − relation φ(A ) dτ = (Aφ)dτ for any two well be- qjzj exp(−pjzj). haved functions. Hermitian operators play an integral Here p and q are adjustable parameters. The solutions role in quantum mechanics due to two of their proper- to the Schr¨odingerequation can then be written as a ties. First, their eigenvalues are always real. This is linear combination of the solutions in limiting cases of important because their eigenvalues correspond to phys- long chain length (l = 1) and short chain length (l ical properties of a system, which cannot be imaginary aB, where aB is the effective Bohr radius): or complex. Second, their eigenfunctions are orthonor- mal, which greatly simplifies many quantum mechanical problems. psi(ze; zh) = The 1D PB model provides a simple illustration of the use Hermitian operators in solving quantum mechanical problems. Furthermore, this model can also be used to πze πzh αφ(ze)φ(−zh) + βA sin( ) sin( ) × φe(ze; zh) (13) approximate electron excitations in cyanine dyes to an l l accuracy of a few percent4.