“Marching Must Be Dignified”: The Government of Parades in Northern Ireland by Susan Salhany, B.A., M.A. A thesis submitted to the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Affairs in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Sociology and Anthropology Carleton University Ottawa, Ontario December 13, 2013 © 2013, Susan Salhany ii Abstract In July 1996, public disorder associated with parades in Northern Ireland amounted to a significant crisis for the state. The result was the creation of an independent commission, known as the Northern Ireland Parades Commission, to manage how parades take place. This dissertation is concerned with the governing strategies and tactics deployed by the Parades Commission since its inception in 1997. It is concerned with the practical means through which the attempt was made to constitute the spaces and politics of parading as an object of government. Michel Foucault’s study of governmentality, as well as the subsequent development of his work by other scholars, provides the overall approach to this thesis. I argue that in the mid-1990s, early attempts to repress, ban, and prohibit parading give way in important degrees to attempts to encourage, entice and direct the conduct of individuals and groups. The strategies, tactics, administrative procedures, and discourses deployed by the Commission aimed to capture and reorganize local symbolic politics and political relations in Northern Ireland in ways deemed conducive to peaceful parading. This study also concerns itself with the challenges, problems and resistances faced by the Commission. In particular, it takes into account the ways in which the lack of political consensus and the history of political conflict in Northern Ireland has shaped the governing project, as well as the ways in which the attempt to govern a symbolic display challenged the processes and practices of government. This thesis ultimately shows how the Commission’s attempts proved unsuccessful: as evident by the constant challenges faced by the body, the spaces and politics of parading are elusive and difficult to constitute; the government of parades has required persistent experimentation which continues to present day. iii Acknowledgements Writing a dissertation is truly a collaborative effort and there are many I wish to thank. I am deeply indebted to my supervisor, Bruce Curtis. Without his persistence, support, and guidance this thesis may not have been completed. I am especially grateful to Bruce for his enthusiastic engagement with my primary material and for his feedback throughout the writing process. His insights and advice were invaluable in providing a path to follow when I was confused and uncertain. When I lacked trust in myself, his unwavering faith in my abilities kept me writing. I am also grateful to Andrea Doucet for her guidance and support through the early years; to Blair Rutherford for his always open door and upbeat encouragement; and to William Walters for agreeing to join this project and for his invaluable feedback on a draft of the thesis. Thank you all for your engagement with my work and for pushing my thinking in new directions. There are many whom I met in Northern Ireland that made this thesis possible. I am indebted to Robin Whitaker who paved the way for fieldwork in Belfast by suggesting individuals I might contact, providing e-introductions, offering advice and helpful tips. Her kindness laid the basis for making my fieldwork experience an extremely rewarding one. Special thanks goes to Dominic Bryan and Michael Hamilton. It is impossible to detail here all the ways in which they contributed to my research and my understanding of parades in Northern Ireland. Both generously gave their time, introduced me to other key individuals, and shared parade-related documents. Such documents provided a rich source of primary material which shaped the direction of the thesis. Dominic kindly invited me along on a flag- counting tour of County Armagh and provided a working space at the Institute of Irish Studies, while Michael introduced me to individuals within the Parades Commission and brought me with him to numerous parades. The thesis would not be what it is without their help and I cannot thank them enough. I am also indebted to all those at the Parades Commission, including Authorised Officers and monitors, who gave me their time during my visits, allowed me to attend parades with them, patiently answered my questions, explained Commission procedures, offered their point view, provided various documents, and willingly helped out in any way they could. I am truly grateful. Similarly, I must thank all those involved in parading in various capacities who opened their door to chat with a Canadian graduate student about her research. During the PhD journey, I had the opportunity to learn from established academics and faculty members, whether we met at Carleton, in Northern Ireland, or at various conferences. I especially thank Aaron Doyle, Martin Hand, Sean Farrell, Debbie Lisle, and Gordon Gillespie for their support, encouragement, and helpful exchange of ideas. Dear friendships sustained me throughout the trials and tribulations of the PhD process. Special thanks go to my academic compatriots Christian Caron, Tara Lyons, Robyn Braun, Sophie Mathieu, Lindsey McKay, Tamy Superle, Jen Wrye, Darryl Ross, among many others. Thank you for listening, for sharing insights, productivity tips, and for cathartic nights out. iv Outside of academia, my profound thanks go to Lianne Kay and Jennifer Luck who over the years patiently listened to my academic woes, provided a sympathetic ear, home cooked meals, and good laughs to sooth my troubles. My parents, Ron and Judy, provided unwavering support from the beginning. It is only because of them that I could undertake a PhD in the first place. When times were tough, they were always there for me with comforting advice and the occasional trip to Ottawa. I could not have done this without them. Equally, I could not have finished this project without the love and support of my husband Mark. He took pride in my academic pursuits and encouraged me every step of the way. I am so fortunate to have him as a partner in life. To the wee one still growing inside my belly: You’ll never know how much the excitement and happiness of your impending existence pushed me to finish this degree. This dissertation is for you. Finally, I benefited from numerous sources of financial support for which I am grateful. Such support made this project possible: The Fonds de recherche du Québec, the Ontario Graduate Scholarship programme, the Ireland Canada University Foundation, the David and Rachel Epstein Foundation, the Faculty of Graduate Studies and Research, the Department of Sociology and Anthropology, and the Graduate Students’ Association. Thank you. v Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgments iii List of Figures vi Introduction 1 Chapter One 20 Governmentality, Investments and Political Experimentation: A Methodological Discussion Chapter Two 40 The Government of Parades in Northern Ireland: From Policing ‘Public Order’ to Governing ‘Community Relations’ Chapter Three 78 The Birth of the Parades Commission and the Production of ‘Contentious Parades’ Chapter Four 107 ‘The Art of Mediation’: Mediation as a Strategy of Government Chapter Five 142 Making Determinations: Mapping ‘Contentious Parades’ Through Knowledge Practices Chapter Six 178 Challenges and Transformations in Making Determinations and the Rise of a Human Rights Discourse Chapter Seven 211 Governmentality, Political Conflict and Symbolic Displays: Challenges, Resistances and Governing Struggle Conclusion 239 vi List of Figures Figure 1 - ‘The Commission in Action’ 93 Figure 2 - A suggested ‘scale of engagement’ 137 Figure 3 - ‘The 12-point Parade Scale’ 175 Figure 4 - ‘Ulster Says No!’ 216 Figure 5 - ‘You not allowed to parade either big lad?’ 230 Figure 6 - ‘Orangefest’ advertisement 246 1 Introduction On July 12 1849, the Protestant marching organization, the Orange Order, marched through Dolly’s Brae, a predominantly Catholic village in County Down, Ireland. A group of Catholic men and women were determined that the procession not pass through the village and they assembled in a nearby field with various arms. Despite attempts by local priests to diffuse the tension and the encouragement by authorities that the Order re-route the march, a violent riot ensued. The riot left Orangemen unharmed, but 30 Catholics dead. The scale of disorder led the government to re-enact a law banning all party processions in Ireland (Farrell 2000: 1-4). The bill, titled A Bill to Restrain Party Processions in Ireland, enacted on February 8 1850, stated: Whereas Numbers of Persons have been in the Practice of assembling and marching together in procession in Ireland in a Manner calculated to create and perpetuate Animosities between different Classes of Her Majesty's Subjects, and to endanger the public Peace: Be it therefore enacted…That from and after the passing of this Act all Assemblies of Persons in Ireland who shall meet and parade together or join in procession, and who shall bear, wear or have amongst them or any of them any fire- arms or other offensive Weapons, or any Banner, Emblem, Flag or Symbol, the Display whereof may be calculated or tend to provoke Animosity between different Classes of Her Majesty's Subjects, or who shall be accompanied by any Person or Persons playing Music which may be calculated or tend to provoke Animosity between different Classes of Her Majesty's Subjects, shall be unlawful Assemblies, and every person present thereat shall be guilty of a Misdemeanor, and upon Conviction thereof shall be punished accordingly. (Hansard 13-14 vic. c2) Almost a century and a half later, in July 1996, public disorder associated with parades in Northern Ireland amounted to a significant crisis for the state. On January 30 1997, the Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, Sir Patrick Mayhew, made a speech in the House of Commons: Last summer, public disorder occurred in Northern Ireland on a very grave scale, associated in particular, but not exclusively, with a parade at Drumcree.