CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY IN THE GANGA BASIN IN INDIA: THE ROLE OF THE SUPREME COURT IN LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE HEM AITKEN M.Sc. (Environmental Management), B.G.L. Principal Supervisor: Professor Donna Craig A thesis presented for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Law, University of Western Sydney, Australia March 2012 ii The work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my knowledge and belief, original except as acknowledged in the text. I hereby declare that I have not submitted this material, either in full or in part, for a degree at this or any other institution. ...................................... ................................. Hem Aitken 2012 iii iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS........................................................................................……ix PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS .....................................................................x ABSTRACT........................................................................................................................xi LIST OF SELECTED ACRONYMS ................................................................................xii LIST OF FIGURES AND TABLES.................................................................................xiv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION......................................................................................1 I Background..............................................................................................................2 II Significance of the Study.........................................................................................4 III Research Questions..................................................................................................7 IV Scope of Dissertation Topic.....................................................................................9 V Literature Review..................................................................................................10 VI Methodology..........................................................................................................11 VII Thesis Structure.....................................................................................................14 CHAPTER 2 THE IMPACTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE ON GLACIERS AND DEPENDENT RIVER SYSTEMS..................................................................................16 I Climate Change: Background................................................................................17 II Overview of Impacts of Climate Change: An International Perspective...............21 III Impacts of Climate Change: An Indian Context....................................................29 IV Conclusion.............................................................................................................43 CHAPTER 3 CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE GANGA BASIN..............................44 I The Ganga in History.............................................................................................45 II The Ganga in Mythology.......................................................................................46 III The Ganga Basin....................................................................................................50 v IV Hydrology of the Ganga Basin..............................................................................54 V Challenges to the River Ganga..............................................................................54 VI Actions Taken So Far to Protect the River Ganga.................................................79 VII Conclusion.............................................................................................................87 CHAPTER 4 INTERNATIONAL LEGAL RESPONSES TO CLIMATE CHANGE..........................................................................................................................89 I International Environmental law............................................................................90 A Background............................................................................................................90 B International Legal Responses to Climate Change................................................95 C India’s Participation in International Climate Negotiations................................108 D International Water Law Framework...................................................................109 E Interim Conclusion..............................................................................................114 II Climate Change Adaptation.................................................................................115 A Introduction..........................................................................................................115 B Adaptation and the Water Sector.........................................................................117 C Interim Conclusion..............................................................................................129 III International and National Climate Adjudication................................................130 A Introduction..........................................................................................................130 B Role of Law and Courts in Responding to Climate Change................................131 C International and National Climate Change Case Laws......................................136 D Interim Conclusion..............................................................................................150 IV Conclusion...........................................................................................................152 vi CHAPTER 5 CLIMATE CHANGE AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL LEGAL AND INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORKS IN INDIA........................................................154 I Indian Federalism and Environmental Law........................................................155 A Division of Authority under the Constitution......................................................155 B Struggle Between the Parliament and the Supreme Court...................................159 C Central Government Authority over International Affairs..................................163 D Constitutional Provisions for Environmental Protection.....................................164 II Climate and Environmental Legal and Institutional Frameworks in India..........168 A Environmental Protection and Pollution Control.................................................168 B Key Enforcement Agencies for Water and Environmental Legislation in India.184 C An assessment of India’s Environmental Laws and Enforcement Institutions....194 D Climate Change Policy.........................................................................................198 E National Action Plan on Climate Change: A Critical Analysis...........................205 III The Indian Supreme Court and Environmental Litigation..................................211 A Important Case Laws and Principles Developed Therein....................................214 IV Conclusion...........................................................................................................225 CHAPTER 6 THE ROLE OF THE SUPREME COURT IN ADDRESSING CLIMATE CHANGE IN THE GANGA BASIN IN INDIA...............................228 I Possible Role of the Supreme Court in Legal and Institutional Change in Case of Identified Scenarios in the Ganga Basin..............................................................230 A Action under Constitutional Provisions for Addressing Climate Change...........234 B Action in Tort.......................................................................................................243 vii II Possible Roadblocks to Judicial Intervention......................................................258 III Conclusion...........................................................................................................261 CHAPTER 7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION.......................................................263 I Observations and Recommendations...................................................................269 REFERENCES...............................................................................................................273 viii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS With great pleasure, I acknowledge and thank the people who made this thesis possible. First and foremost, I offer my deepest gratitude to my Supervisors Professor Donna Craig and Professor Michael Jeffery, who not only provided their guidance, advice and insight throughout this project but went an extra mile and extended their parental care, love and support to me. I could not have imagined having better advisors and mentors for my PhD study. I am grateful to Mr MC Mehta for encouraging me to undertake a PhD and for helping to select the subject of the thesis. My sincere thanks go to the University of Western Sydney (UWS) for giving me this valuable opportunity to undertake a PhD and for the financial help during the course of my studies. I would also like to thank the UWS Law School staff for their kind help. Thanks should also go to my fellow students at UWS with whom I have shared the ups and downs of the PhD process. My deepest and heartfelt gratitude are due to my parents and my siblings, Yatin and Nisha who unconditionally believed in me and supported me all through my studies. I am also thankful to my brother-in-law, James, for his support and am indebted to my mother-in-law for keeping me in her prayers for my success. Special thanks to the most important person in my life, my husband