Middlesex University Research Repository An open access repository of Middlesex University research http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk Healy, Jane (2018) On the periphery of hate crime: disability at the intersections of marginalisation, vulnerability and difference. PhD thesis, Middlesex University. [Thesis] Final accepted version (with author’s formatting) This version is available at: https://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/25907/ Copyright: Middlesex University Research Repository makes the University’s research available electronically. Copyright and moral rights to this work are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners unless otherwise stated. The work is supplied on the understanding that any use for commercial gain is strictly forbidden. A copy may be downloaded for personal, non-commercial, research or study without prior permission and without charge. 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See also repository copyright: re-use policy: http://eprints.mdx.ac.uk/policies.html#copy On the periphery of hate crime: Disability at the intersections of marginalisation, vulnerability and difference Jane Healy Doctor of Philosophy June 2018 (Revised) On the periphery of hate crime: Disability at the intersections of marginalisation, vulnerability and difference by Jane Catherine Healy Student M00280589 A thesis submitted to Middlesex University in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Criminology and Sociology School of Law Middlesex University June 2018 (Revised) Abstract This research explores the nature and impact of disability hate crime from the perspective of disabled people, victims and key informants from criminal justice and other agencies. The evidence base included two focus groups with disabled people, an online anonymous questionnaire with 83 disabled participants, narrative interviews with 12 victims of disability hate crimes and semi-structured interviews with 15 key informants. It draws on all forms of disability, impairment and conditions and contributes to the current research deficit in the field of disability hate crime. All of the participants spoke of a prevalence of targeted violence and harassment against disabled people that is cumulative and repetitive in nature. Victims reported a variety of abuse and hostility, from name-calling and verbal abuse to physical and sexual violence, harassment and damage to property. A significant minority reported experiencing a withdrawal of support or assistance from carers or family members, something which is unique to this strand of hate crime. The impact of this victimisation on disabled communities is both emotional and practical, and can include utilising avoidance or acceptance strategies that restrict living and working conditions for disabled people, thereby contributing to their isolation and Othering. Some participants reported suicidal ideation; others were resilient and described their experiences as normative. Victims recount inadequate, offensive and inappropriate responses from the criminal justice system generally, and a consequential lack of confidence in them as a result. Government policy on benefit claimants and concurrent negative media coverage of disabled people were factors in victims’ experiences of hate crimes, with participants advocating that recent cultural and social changes in how disabled people are perceived and framed have directly led to an increase in incidents and crimes. The research demonstrates how domination and subordination of a marginalised group in society has led to resignation and acceptance by them of disability hate crime as part of life. It makes recommendations to address this by establishing dedicated hate crime units within police forces, embedding hate crime awareness and training within safeguarding practices and improving third party reporting facilities. i Acknowledgements Thank you to Professor Anthony Goodman, Dr Jackie Gray and Professor Eleonore Kofman for their supervisory support on this project. I am very grateful for the patience and unending encouragement I have received in particular from Jackie and Tony. Enormous thanks also to all my family and friends who have supported me from near and far; my mam and dad, brother and sisters, cousins, aunties, uncles; there are far too many to list but you have all supported and encouraged me to #getitin. Thank you to Dr Gemma McKenna and Lisa Overton for the opportunity of sharing and supporting our PhD journeys together, despite longevity and distance. I am especially thankful to all of the participants within this research project; without whom I would have nothing to report; in particular to those who have been victims of disability hate crimes, for their candour, willingness, encouragement and commitment to change. I also thank Middlesex University for funding this research project and believing in researching an ‘invisible’ topic in 2009. Finally, I would like to thank my husband Lee, without whom I wouldn’t be the person I am today, and my beautiful children, Gemma and Aidan; without them, this PhD would have been finished a lot sooner, but with less empathy and passion. Dedication This is dedicated to all survivors and victims of disability hate crimes. And to Sean Healy who taught me to love books. ii Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................................................ i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................. ii Dedication ........................................................................................................................................... ii Tables ................................................................................................................................................. xi Figures ................................................................................................................................................ xi Chapter 1: Doing Disability: Definitions, Research, Models ............................................................... 1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................................ 1 Defining Disability ............................................................................................................................... 2 A history of discrimination, isolation and differentiation ................................................................... 4 Models of Disability – from Medical to Social and beyond ................................................................ 5 The Disability (Social) Movement ....................................................................................................... 7 Disability Research Framework ........................................................................................................... 9 Government policy: a climate of disability doubters ....................................................................... 10 Chapter Summary ............................................................................................................................. 12 Chapter 2: Disability Hate Crime: definitions and concepts ............................................................. 13 Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 13 The emergence of Disability Hate Crime in the UK ........................................................................... 13 Hate Crime is the new Prejudice ....................................................................................................... 14 Defining Hate Crime .......................................................................................................................... 16 Academic and Policy Definitions: Culturally criminal or ordinary bigot ....................................... 18 Disablism ....................................................................................................................................... 21 iii Prosecuting Hate Crimes ................................................................................................................... 24 Stirring up competition ................................................................................................................. 28 Hate Crime Strands: The dilemma of difference .........................................................................