A Multi-Level Legitimacy Analysis of the World Anti-Doping Agency by Daniel Read (B628366) Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University. 23/07/2019 Supervisors: Professor James Skinner, Dr Daniel Lock & Professor Barrie Houlihan © Daniel Read (2019) i Table of Contents List of Tables ......................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ....................................................................................................................... vii Abbreviations ....................................................................................................................... viii Acknowledgments ................................................................................................................... x Publications ............................................................................................................................ xi Abstract ................................................................................................................................. xii Glossary of Terms ................................................................................................................ xiv Chapter One: Thesis Overview ............................................................................................... 1 1.1. Doping in Sport ............................................................................................................ 1 1.2. The Progress of WADA and Multi-Level Legitimacy Theory ..................................... 4 1.3. Research Questions ...................................................................................................... 5 1.4. Thesis Design and Methods.......................................................................................... 6 Chapter Two: Evaluating the Progress of the World Anti-Doping Agency Regime ................ 8 2.1. Anti-Doping Network Development ............................................................................ 8 2.2. Anti-Doping Testing Statistics ................................................................................... 10 2.3. Harmonisation of Anti-Doping Policy ........................................................................ 12 2.3.1. Inability ............................................................................................................... 14 2.3.2. Inadvertence ........................................................................................................ 14 2.3.3. Choice ................................................................................................................. 15 2.4. WADA’s Progress to Date ......................................................................................... 18 2.5. Aim of the Thesis ....................................................................................................... 19 Chapter Three: Theoretical Framework................................................................................. 20 3.1. Institutional Theory .................................................................................................... 20 3.1.1. Agency in Institutional Theory ............................................................................ 22 3.1.2. Micro-level Institutional Processes ...................................................................... 23 3.2. Multi-Level Legitimacy Theory ................................................................................. 25 3.2.1. Multi-Level Legitimacy Theory and Conditions of Change ................................ 26 3.3. Legitimacy as a Judgement Research ......................................................................... 29 3.4. The Legitimacy of WADA ......................................................................................... 31 3.5. Research Questions .................................................................................................... 35 Chapter Four: Methodology .................................................................................................. 37 4.1. Research Philosophy .................................................................................................. 37 ii 4.2. Case Study as a Research Approach ........................................................................... 38 4.2.1. What is a Case Study? ......................................................................................... 39 4.2.2. Philosophical Underpinnings of Case Studies ..................................................... 40 4.2.3. Is a Case Study Research Design Justified? ......................................................... 41 4.2.4. Types of Case Studies ......................................................................................... 43 4.2.5. Criticisms of case study research design.............................................................. 44 4.3. Case Study Design ..................................................................................................... 46 4.3.1. Literature review, Theoretical Framework and Research Problem ...................... 46 4.3.2. Research Questions ............................................................................................. 47 4.3.3. Subunit selection ................................................................................................. 48 4.3.4. Data Collection .................................................................................................... 52 4.4 Sampling ..................................................................................................................... 60 4.5. Data Analysis ............................................................................................................. 62 4.6. Chapter Summary....................................................................................................... 65 Chapter Five: Subunit One – The Lausanne Conference ....................................................... 67 5.1. Subunit Description .................................................................................................... 67 5.2. Methods ..................................................................................................................... 70 5.3. Findings and Discussion ............................................................................................. 71 5.3.1. Government Intervention ..................................................................................... 75 5.3.2. Commercial Power .............................................................................................. 80 5.3.3. Failed Resistance ................................................................................................. 83 5.3.4. Effective compromise .......................................................................................... 87 5.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................. 92 Chapter Six: Subunit Two – The Whereabouts System ......................................................... 94 6.1. Subunit Description .................................................................................................... 94 6.2. Methods ..................................................................................................................... 96 6.3. Findings and Discussion ............................................................................................. 97 6.3.1. Olympic Independence ...................................................................................... 101 6.3.2. Necessity ........................................................................................................... 106 6.3.3. Controlling Obligation....................................................................................... 112 6.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 117 Chapter Seven: Subunit Three – Lance Armstrong and the Union Cycliste Internationale . 118 7.1. Subunit Description .................................................................................................. 118 iii 7.2. Methods ................................................................................................................... 122 7.3. Findings and Discussion ........................................................................................... 122 7.3.1. Victimisation to Launch Challenges .................................................................. 126 7.3.2. Attacking the Source ......................................................................................... 130 7.3.3. Reinterpreting Testing Inefficiencies ................................................................. 134 7.4. Conclusion ............................................................................................................... 139 Chapter Eight: Subunit Four – Therapeutic Use Exemptions .............................................. 141 8.1. Subunit Description .................................................................................................. 141 8.2. Methods ................................................................................................................... 143 8.3. Findings and Discussion ..........................................................................................