View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Crossref Chapter 3 Papermaking: The Historical Diffusion of an Ancient Technique Jonathan M. Bloom Paper was invented in China in the centuries before Christ and carried by Buddhist monks throughout East and Central Asia (Tsien, 1985), where Muslim Arabs encountered it in the eighth century CE. Muslims carried paper and papermaking to the Mediterranean region, and European Christians there learned how to make it by the twelfth century. Europeans not only forgot their debt to Muslim papermakers but also remained ignorant of paper’s origins in China, so that when they first encoun- tered Chinese paper in the sixteenth century, they thought that the Chinese must have learned the art of papermaking from the ancient Egyptians! Europeans then carried paper and papermaking, along with printing, throughout the globe. While the history of paper has traditionally been overshadowed by the history of printing, the spread of paper and papermaking is arguably equally important, for this rela- tively permanent, cheap, and flexible material not only encouraged the spread of written culture across the globe but also transformed many other human activities. This paper studies mobilities of knowledge from the perspective of paper making by examining how and when this technique diffused from China across Eurasia to the Mediterranean region and from there to the rest of Europe in the period between 600 and 1500. The main factors that enhanced and impeded this spatial diffusion of knowledge were the availability of raw materials and the adoption of differing tech- nologies, but the roles of mediating aspects such as religion, trade, emigration, imports, and exports will also be discussed. J.M. Bloom (*) Fine Arts Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA, USA e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s) 2017 51 H. Jöns et al. (eds.), Mobilities of Knowledge, Knowledge and Space 10, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-44654-7_3 52 J.M. Bloom The Early Diffusion of Papermaking Paper is a mat of cellulose fibers that have been beaten in the presence of water, col- lected on a screen, and dried. The manufacture of paper requires only cellulose, which can be extracted from various types of plants or textile waste, and fresh water for processing the fibers, as well as a screen on which to collect them. In principle paper can be made virtually anywhere, and the relative simplicity of the technique allowed cultures and individuals wide variation in the actual materials and specific processes used to make paper, depending on what was locally available and what was known. That said, making good paper is an art. Warmer and drier conditions are preferable for papermaking, as the fibers must be beaten wet, the papermaker has to put his hands in the vat, and the water has to drip and evaporate from the formed sheets, but paper can be made successfully even in often cold and damp climates, such as Holland, where it began to be made in the late sixteenth century. In the warm and humid regions of China where paper was invented, papermakers made their product principally from bast fibers collected directly from semi-tropical plants and shrubs, but it could equally be made from the cellulose in linen and cot- ton rags, old ropes, and other textile waste, a process that was adopted in the harsher and drier climates of Central Asia (Hoernle, 1903), where it was used not only by the Buddhists who had introduced paper to the region but also by local merchants and bureaucrats. After Muslims conquered Central Asia in the late seventh century, their burgeoning bureaucracy quickly began to use paper for record-keeping because it was relatively cheap, plentiful, and writing on it could not be erased without detection. The Replacement of Papyrus and Parchment By the late eighth century paper was being manufactured in Baghdad, the capital of the Abbasid caliphate in central Iraq, and its use and manufacture was soon dissemi- nated throughout the empire. Paper was introduced to Syria ca. 800, and it quickly spread throughout the Arab Mediterranean lands replacing papyrus and parchment, the two portable and flexible writing supports that had been used in the region for millennia. Papyrus was made from the stalks of a reed that grew primarily along the banks of the Nile River in Egypt. The fresh stalks were cut into lengths, sliced into strips, laid in two overlapping layers at right angles to each other, pressed together, and dried. Individual sheets could be glued together to form rolls and scrolls, the form in which papyrus was normally used. Papyrus rolls had been made from ca. 3000 BCE and exported from Egypt to Greece and other Mediterranean lands. While the papyrus reed could grow in other warm riparian environments, only in Egypt did the plant grow thick enough to make the production of writing materials practical, so its production remained an Egyptian monopoly for about four millennia. 3 Papermaking: The Historical Diffusion of an Ancient Technique 53 The other flexible writing support used in antiquity was parchment, from the Latin pergamena, referring to the city of Pergamon in western Anatolia. It is a taut, stiff and relatively inelastic material made from skins, primarily from sheep and goats, that have been soaked in water and lime, scraped of their hair and fat, and dried under tension. The Roman author Pliny claimed that parchment had been invented in the second century BCE when Eumenes II Soter, ruler of Pergamon, had to invent a new writing material because the Ptolemies of Egypt, jealous of Pergamon’s growing library, had embargoed shipments of papyrus. Other Classical sources, however, indicate that parchment and leather had been the principal writing media in the lands east of the Mediterranean. The Jews, of course, have since ancient times used parchment rolls for copies of the Torah, and parchment is known to have been used in western Central Asia in early Islamic times (Khan, 2007). The east- ward spread of this material was limited, however, by the westward spread of Buddhism, which abhorred using the skins of dead animals for writing. The Romans initially regarded parchment as inferior to papyrus, a writing material sanctioned by some 3000 years of use throughout the Mediterranean basin, and they deemed it suitable only for use in notebooks, not rolls. Although parchment was much more expensive than papyrus—primarily because the animal had to be killed to make a sheet—it did have the great advantage that it could be made anywhere if appropriate animals were available, or effectively everywhere. It also did not fray or split when folded, a distinct advantage as the codex form of book, previously used only for wooden tablets coated with wax and used for temporary note-taking, became more popular with the coming of Christianity (Roberts & Skeat, 1983). Parchment also survived better in a wider range of climatic conditions, particularly humidity, although direct contact with water would cause a parchment sheet to cockle and be irreparably damaged. Medieval European and Byzantine chanceries continued to use papyrus for as long as it remained available. The great Belgian historian Henri Pirenne (1954/2001) thought that papyrus disappeared from Gaul as a result of the Arab conquests of North Africa, which supposedly interrupted Mediterranean trade (pp. 169–170), but the papal chancery in Rome continued to use papyrus until the eleventh century (McCormick, 2001, pp. 704–708), indicating that the trade in papyrus continued despite the Arab conquests. By the middle of the ninth century, however, the papal writing office began stockpiling supplies, because Egyptians began to produce more paper than papyrus. Archaeology confirms the shift from writing on papyrus to paper in the Islamic lands, and by the thirteenth century a traveler to Egypt explic- itly declared that the manufacture of papyrus was quite forgotten. Cultural Geographies of Papermaking The widespread availability of paper encouraged an extraordinary culture of book- learning throughout the Muslim lands that was unparalleled in contemporary Christendom, which continued to rely on relatively expensive parchment, thereby restricting the number of writers and readers (Bloom, 2001). Nevertheless, cultural 54 J.M. Bloom factors affected the diffusion of its manufacture over space and time. For example, Chinese Buddhist monks and missionaries carried paper and papermaking at an early date to Korea, Japan, and Vietnam, and they must also have simultaneously brought that knowledge to India, for they went there to collect and copy original Buddhist texts. Yet paper does not seem to have been used or manufactured in India until well after the region was conquered by Muslims in the late twelfth century, presumably because Indian writers were perfectly happy with using palm leaves, the traditional support for writing on the subcontinent (Soteriou, 1999) (Fig. 3.1). Similarly, the Byzantines surely knew of paper by the ninth century, for Christians in Damascus were using paper as soon as Muslims (Perria, 1983–1984), but they did not really start using it in earnest until centuries later (Oikonomidès, 1977). They must have felt that parchment was more durable than paper, for a document written in 1118 states that the original copy of a convent’s charter was to be pre- served on parchment in the church of Hagia Sophia, while paper copies were to be kept in the convent itself. From the late twelfth century, however, paper manuscripts became increasingly common in Byzantium, although there is little evidence that paper was ever made there before the Ottomans took the city in 1453 (Kâgitçi, 1963, p. 37). Finally, Muslim merchants from North Africa crossed the Sahara to West Africa, introducing Islam to the region by the year 1000.