Vulnerability and adaptation of Ghana’s food production systems and rural livelihoods to climate variability Philip Antwi-Agyei Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Earth and Environment December, 2012 The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own, except where work which has formed part of jointly-authored publications has been included. The contribution of the candidate and the other authors to this work has been explicitly indicated below. The candidate confirms that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. “The right of Philip Antwi-Agyei to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988” © 2012 University of Leeds and Philip Antwi-Agyei ii PhD Publications Parts of this PhD thesis have been published in the following: International Journals Antwi-Agyei, P., Dougill, A.J., Fraser, E.D.G., and Stringer, L.C (2012). Characterising the nature of household vulnerability to climate variability: empirical evidence from two regions of Ghana. Environment, Development and Sustainability. DOI 10.1007/s10668-012-9418-9. Antwi-Agyei, P., Fraser, E.D.G., Dougill, A.J., Stringer, L.C., and Simelton, E. (2012) Mapping the vulnerability of crop production to drought in Ghana using rainfall, yield and socioeconomic data. Applied Geography, 32(2): 324-334. Antwi-Agyei, P., Stringer, L.C., and Dougill, A.J. (under review) Livelihoods adaptations to climate variability: insights from farming households in Ghana. Regional Environmental Change. Working Papers Antwi-Agyei, P., Dougill, A.J., Fraser, E.D.G., and Stringer, L.C (2012). Characterising the nature of vulnerability to climate variability: empirical evidence from two regions of Ghana. Sustainability Research Institute Working Paper No. 37, University of Leeds. [http://www.see.leeds.ac.uk/fileadmin/Documents/research/ sri/workingpapers/SRIPs-37.pdf]. Antwi-Agyei, P., Fraser, E.D.G., Dougill, A.J., Stringer, L.C., and Simelton, E. (2011) Mapping the vulnerability of crop production to drought in Ghana using rainfall, yield and socioeconomic data. Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy Working Paper 55, University of Leeds. [http://www.cccep.ac.uk/Publications/ working - papers/ papers/50-59/WP55_crop-production-ghana.pdf]. In writing these papers I received guidance from the co-authors. However, as the lead author I designed the research including the methodology and analysed the data. The contents draw directly from data I collected from my own fieldwork. I wrote the manuscripts and all authors contributed to the revisions and editing of these papers. iii Acknowledgements This research would not have been possible without the support and encouragement of many people. First and foremost, I would like to thank God for his abundant grace, provisions and direction. Secondly, I would like to express my profound gratitude to my supervisors, Prof. Andrew Dougill, Dr. Evan Fraser and Dr. Lindsay Stringer for their encouragement, support, constructive comments and timely guidance in completing this thesis. I wish to extend my sincere gratitude to the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission (UK) for the financial support to pursue this doctoral study. Without this financial support, the dream of pursing a doctoral study would not have been possible. The International Foundation for Science (IFS) also deserves special thanks for the provision of a grant to undertake fieldwork to Ghana for data collection. The support of the Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy, University of Leeds, is also acknowledged for providing a return air ticket to Ghana as part of my third fieldwork. I gratefully acknowledge the support and warm reception of the chiefs and people of Adaboya, Aframso, Ayelbia, Babaso, Nyamebekyere, and Vea for sharing their knowledge and experiences with me. This study would not have been possible without the acceptance and participation of these communities. I am particularly grateful to Mr. Richard Akoese (Adaboya), Mr. I. K. Acheampong (Nyamebekyere), Mr. P. K. Agyei (Babaso), Mr. Eric Dwomoh (Ejura) and Naba Thomas Azubire (Naba of Vea) for their valuable insights during data collection. I am also grateful to Alhaji Musbahu (District Director of Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Bongo) and Mr. Emmanuel Abobire (Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Bongo) for their expert guidance and direction during my fieldwork. I am highly indebted to the extension officers of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture at Bongo and Ejura Sekyedumase districts. Research assistants – Fred Oppong Sekyere, Daniel Owusu-Manu, Henry Yamgah and Albert Ayamgah – were particularly helpful during field data collection. They not only helped in administering household questionnaires and conducting ecological surveys but also provided companionship during fieldwork. iv A number of organisations and institutions provided special assistance to enable me to complete this thesis. In particular, special thanks go to the Ghana Meteorological Agency for providing rainfall dataset. I owe a debt of gratitude to Dr. Emmanuel Tachie-Obeng and Mr. Daniel Tutu Benefo at the Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana for being helpful during data collection. I would also like to acknowledge the support of Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Ghana for granting me study leave to pursue this doctoral study. I would like to express my heartfelt gratitude to my lovely wife, Jemima, and children, Philippa, Yvonne, Jason and Emmanuel. Words cannot express how grateful I am to you for all your daily prayers, encouragement, patience and love. Your daily inspiration and emotional support throughout this study have been tremendous. I love you all. I am extremely gratefully to my parents, Mr. Joseph Kwaku Antwi-Agyei and Madam Yaa Mansah (late), for their parental advice, encouragement and prayers. I am also thankful to all my brothers and sisters for their support and encouragement. I am sincerely grateful to the Pastor and members of Good Shepherd Assemblies of God Church, Leeds, UK, for their prayer support and encouragement. I am particularly grateful to Deacon Ebenezer Aryee and his family for their encouragement to me and my family. In addition, I would like to thank all my friends and colleagues at the Sustainability Research Institute, School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds, UK, for their friendship and words of encouragement during my studies. Last but not least, I would like to say a big thank you to all those who have contributed in diverse ways to the successful completion of this thesis, but whose names have not been mentioned. v Abstract Sub-Saharan Africa is projected to be severely affected by climate change in the form of increased climate variability. Ghana provides a suitable case study country in which to assess the vulnerability of communities to such climate changes. Data on the nature and extent of vulnerability of Ghana’s food production systems and livelihoods to climate variability (particularly drought) are lacking, and this hampers the development of effective policy to reduce the adverse impacts of climate change and variability. This study aims to enhance empirical understanding of the socioeconomic, institutional and biophysical factors that contribute to vulnerability to climate change and variability amongst a range of farming households and communities in Ghana. By integrating statistical analyses, participatory methods and ecological surveys, this research adopts a multi-scale approach to assess the extent of food production and livelihood vulnerability across multiple scales: mapping vulnerability at the national and regional scales and drilling down to the community and household scales. Results show that the vulnerability of crop production to climate variability (particularly drought) has discernible geographical and socioeconomic patterns, with the Northern, Upper West and Upper East regions being most vulnerable. The results of the drought assessment are used to guide local-level research, and demonstrate the need for region- specific policies to reduce vulnerability and enhance drought preparedness within dryland farming communities. Within the same agro-ecological setting, different communities and households experience different vulnerability attributed to differences in socioeconomic characteristics. Results show that vulnerability of farming households can be linked to access to livelihood capital assets and that vulnerable communities tend to have households that are characterised by low levels of human, natural, financial, physical and social capitals. Findings also demonstrate that small-scale farmers employ a range of on-farm and off-farm adaptation strategies including changing the timing of planting, planting of drought-tolerant and early maturing varieties of crops, livelihood diversification, agro-forestry systems, crop diversification, temporary migration, relying on social networks and reducing food consumption to manage climate variability. A range of challenges including a lack of financial resources, poor access to information on climate adaptation, complex land tenure systems, social-cultural barriers, limited access to improved varieties of crops, as well as a lack