PREFACE The Wildland Fire Suppression Tactics Reference Guide is designed to supplement courses that teach tactics in the Wildland Fire Qualification System. It can be used by the beginning firefighter to learn basic tactics as well as a review of fire suppression tactics for the advanced firefighter. This reference guide was developed under the direction of the National Wildfire Coordinating Group Training Working Team with coordination and assistance of Fire Managers from the following agencies: United States Department of the Interior Bureau of Land Management National Park Service Bureau of Indian Affairs United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service National Association of State Foresters Colorado State Forest Service Minnesota Division of Forestry We appreciate the efforts those people associated with the design and development of this product. 1 Additional copies of this publication may be ordered from: National Interagency Fire Center ATTN: Supply 3833 S. Development Ave. Boise, Idaho 83705 Order NFES #1256 11 CONTENTS INTRODUCTION TO REFERENCE GUIDE.............................................. 1 FIRE ORDERS 2 WATCH OUT SITUATIONS 3 LOOKOUTS, COMMUNICATIONS, ESCAPE ROUTES, SAFETY ZONES (LCES) 4 SECTION 1 - FIRE SUPPRESSION PRINCIPLES 5 Fire Sizeup and Initial Attack 7 How to Attack a Fire 15 Where to Attack a Fire 18 Fireline Location 20 Fireline Flagging 26 Fireline Construction 29 Coyote Tactic 36 Crew Production Rates 38 Fireline Explosives 41 Mopup 44 Minimum Impact Suppression Tactics (MIST) 48 SECTION 2 - USE OF WATER AND ADDITIVES 57 Types of Pumps 59 Hydraulics 62 Series, Parallel, and Staged Pumping 71 Hose Lays 75 Mopup 78 Tactical Use of Water 79 Surfactants 92 Class A Foam. 93 Retardants 101 Firegels 101 111 SECTION 3 - USE OF FIRE IN CONTROL OPERATIONS 103 Burning Out and Backfiring 105 Types of Fire Spread 109 Ignition Techniques 113 Strip Firing 113 One, Two, Three - Three, Two, One (1-2-3/3-2-1) Firing Concept 115 Head and Strip Head Firing 117 Blowhole Firing 118 Spot Firing 119 Ring Firing 120 Chevron Firing 121 Burn Strip 122 Planning and Conducting Firing Operations 123 Special Firing Considerations 124 Firing Equipment 127 SECTION 4 - MECHANICAL EQUIPMENT 131 Dozers 133 Comparison of Dozers Used For Fireline Construction 134 Dozer Production Rates 140 Dozer Line Construction Principles 144 Tractor Plows 148 Principles of Tractor/Plow Operations 149 Engines 153 Mobile Attack 156 Tandem Tactic 157 Pincer Tactic 158 Envelopment Tactic 159 Stationary Attack 160 Inside-out Tactic 161 Parallel Attack 162 Engine Production Rates 164 IV SECTION 5 - TACTICAL AIR OPERATIONS 165 Factors Affecting Aircraft Use 167 Factors to Consider in Retardant Aircraft Use 170 Types, Effects, and Use of Retardant 173 Recommended Retardant Coverage Levels 175 Retardant Evaluation Criteria 176 Air Tanker Tactics 177 Principles of Retardant Application 180 SECTION 6 - WILDLAND/URBAN INTERFACE 181 Kinds of Wildland/Urban Interface 183 Structural Fire Behavior 184 Wildland/Urban Fire Sizeup Considerations 185 Structure Triage 188 Wildland/Urban Interface Firefighting Tactics 191 Structure Full Containment 194 Structure Partial Containment 195 Structure No Containment 196 Structural Firefighting Situations That Shout "Watch Out" 200 Structural Watch Out Situations & Triage Made Easier to Remember 201 SECTION 7 - FlTELS, FIRE BEHAVIOR, AND TACTICS BY GEOGRAPHIC AREAS OF THE UNITED STATES 203 Alaska 205 Northwest and Northern Rocky Mountains 219 Southern and Central California 237 Great Basin and Southern Rocky Mountains 257 Southwest 283 Northeast 297 Southeast 313 GLOSSARY OF TERMS 333 v VI INTRODUCTION The Wildland Fire Suppression Tactics Reference Guide provides basic tactical information on suppressing wildland fires. It also provides information on wildland fire fuels, fire behavior, and tactics by geographic areas of the United States. It can be used by the beginning firefighter to learn more about tactics or determining exactly where and how to build a control line and what other suppression measures are necessary to extinguish a fire. It can be used as a review of fire suppression tactics for the advanced firefighter. The tactics reference guide is intended to be a supplement, but not a substitute for wildland fire training. It does not qualify a person for any wildland firefighting position. This guide does not include nor address the constraints on firefighting imposed by environmental laws and regulations; i.e., designated wilderness areas, wilderness study areas, threatened and endangered species, cultural and archeology sites, air quality, etc. 1 FIRE ORDERS Fight fire aggressively but provide for safety first. Initiate all action based on current and expected fire behavior. Recognize current weather conditions and obtain forecasts. Ensure instructions are given and understood. Obtain current information on fire status. Remain in communication with crew members, your supervisor and adjoining forces. Determine safety zones and escape routes. Establish lookouts in potentially hazardous situations. Retain control at all times. Stay alert, keep calm, think clearly, act decisively. 2 WATCH OUT SITUATIONS (Survival Checklist) Fire not scouted and sized up. In country not seen by daylight. Safety zones and escape routes not identified. Unfamiliar with weather and local factors influencing fire behavior. Uninformed on strategy, tactics and hazards. Instructions and assignments not clear. No communication link with crew members/supervisor. Constructing fireline without safe anchor point. Building fireline downhill with fire below. Attempting frontal attack on the fire. Unbumed fuel between you and the fire. Cannot see main fire, not in contact with anyone who can. On a hillside where rolling material can ignite fuel below. Weather is getting hotter and drier. Wind increases and/or changes direction. Getting frequent spot fires across line. Terrain and fuels make escape to safety zones difficult. Taking a nap near the fireline. 3 LOOKOUTS, COMMUNICATIONS, ESCAPE ROUTES, SAFETY ZONES (LCES) Figure 1 displays the concept of LCES which is posting lookout(s) if you cannot see the fire, maintaining communications between the lookout(s) and firefighters, and always knowing your escape route(s) and safety zone(s). If LCES is constantly practiced the Standard Firefighting Orders and Watch Out Situations will not be compromised. Figure I-LCES ILeES I Lookout(s) --r(f) ~ -- -- Objective ~ Hazard Communication(s) ~ Escape Route(s) y Safety Zone(s) LeES must be established & known to ALL firefighters BEFORE needed. 4 SECTION 1 - FIRE SUPPRESSION PRINCIPLES Strategy is an overall plan of action for fighting a fire which gives regard to the most cost efficient use of personnel and equipment in consideration of resource values threatened, fire behavior, legal constraints, and objectives established for resource management. Tactics are the operational aspects of fire suppression. Determining exactly where and how to build a control line and what other suppression measures are necessary to extinguish a fire. Tactics must be consistent with the strategy established for suppressing a fire. The purpose of this section on fire suppression principles is to acquaint all firefighters with the factors to size up a fire and apply the strategy and tactics that will enable an appropriate suppression response to be completed in a safe, efficient manner, and facilitate rehabilitation of the suppression impacts. Most wildland fires are suppressed by initial attack (first to arrive) forces. Some wildland fires become large for various reasons. Fire suppression principles apply to initial attack as well as to large fires or parts of large fires. 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 6 I FIRE SIZEUP AND INITIAL ATTACK Often times firefighters and incident commanders take shortcuts concerning fire sizeup, establishing communications and safety. A thorough fire sizeup, establishing communications among all resources on a fire, and applying safety to all aspects of fire suppression are critical elements that must be adhered to. If adequate communications can not be established and firefighter safety is compromised then it is time to back off and re-evaluate your tactics. If you are assigned to fight fire in an area where you are unfamiliar with the local fuels, weather, topography, and fire behavior you should request a briefing from the local agency, to provide you with this information. In many cases sizeup and initial attack go hand in hand because the firefighter with a passion for safety begins to gather information about the fire situation from the initial dispatch and/or prior to departing to the fire incident. En route To A Fire En route to a fire begin to think about your knowledge of the fire area and how current conditions compare to past experiences. Some items to consider are: • Firefighter safety. • Fuels and terrain. What are the fuels? Are they heavy timber types or light, flashy, grass types? Are the fuels sheltered from direct solar radiation due to aspect or cover? Is the terrain steep or gentle? How do you expect this fire to bum compared to recent fires in similar areas? • Weather-is the windspeed greater or less than the forecast? Is it from the same direction? Are there dust devils or gusty winds that would indicate erratic behavior? Is the humidity about what was forecast? Are there any indicator clouds or thunderstorms? • Smoke column-check size, height, color, direction and shape. The greater the height and size of the column the greater the fire intensity. A fractured (bent over by the wind) column indicates a wind­ driven fire. Wind-driven fires can pose serious threats to safety as the fire grows. Spotting can become long range creating new fires ahead of the main fire. However, direction and rate of spread is more predictable. 7 A large developing mushroom shaped column can indicate a plume­ dominated fire where the fire's rate of spread and direction is very unpredictable. Strong wind indrafts and downbursts can occur with short range spotting in all directions.