tabular[t]cMatko Orsag tabular tabular[t]cDamjan Mikli\81\007 tabular tabular[t]c(Sre\81\007ko Juri\81\007-Kavelj) Introduction to GNU/Linux Ivan Marković Matko Orsag Damjan Miklić (Srećko Jurić-Kavelj) University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing, Departement of Control and Computer Engineering 2012 University of Zagreb Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computing IM, MO, DM (FER–ZARI) GNU/Linux intro 1 / 22 1 Introduction The GNU/Linux operating system • GNU (GNU’s Not Unix) I find it really cool to be able to dig through an open source project’s history right to the inception of the open source movement itself. Below is the original initial announcement of the GNU Project, posted by Richard Stallman: From CSvax:pur-ee:inuxc!ixn5c!ihnp4!houxm!mhuxi!eagle!mit-vax!mit-eddie!RMS@MIT-OZ From: RMS%MIT-OZ@mit-eddie Newsgroups: net.unix-wizards,net.usoft Subject: new Unix implementation Date: Tue, 27-Sep-83 12:35:59 EST Organization: MIT AI Lab, Cambridge, MA Free Unix! Starting this Thanksgiving I am going to write a complete Unix-compatible software system called GNU (for Gnu’s Not Unix), and give it away free(1) to everyone who can use it. Contributions of time, money, programs and equipment are greatly needed. To begin with, GNU will be a kernel plus all the utilities needed to write and run C programs: editor, shell, C compiler, linker, assembler, and a few other things. After this we will add a text formatter, a YACC, an Empire game, a spreadsheet, and hundreds of other things. We hope to supply, eventually, everything useful that normally comes with a Unix system, and anything else useful, including on-line and hardcopy documentation. GNU will be able to run Unix programs, but will not be identical to Unix. We will make all improvements that are convenient, based on our experience with other operating systems. In particular, we plan to have longer filenames, file version numbers, a crashproof file system, filename completion perhaps, terminal-independent display support, and eventually a Lisp-based window system through 1 which several Lisp programs and ordinary Unix programs can share a screen. Both C and Lisp will be available as system programming languages. We will have network software based on MIT’s chaosnet protocol, far superior to UUCP. We may also have something compatible with UUCP. Who Am I? I am Richard Stallman, inventor of the original much-imitated EMACS editor, now at the Artificial Intelligence Lab at MIT. I have worked extensively on compilers, editors, debuggers, command interpreters, the Incompatible Timesharing System and the Lisp Machine operating system. I pioneered terminal-independent display support in ITS. In addition I have implemented one crashproof file system and two window systems for Lisp machines. Why I Must Write GNU I consider that the golden rule requires that if I like a program I must share it with other people who like it. I cannot in good conscience sign a nondisclosure agreement or a software license agreement. So that I can continue to use computers without violating my principles, I have decided to put together a sufficient body of free software so that I will be able to get along without any software that is not free. How You Can Contribute I am asking computer manufacturers for donations of machines and money. I’m asking individuals for donations of programs and work. One computer manufacturer has already offered to provide a machine. But we could use more. One consequence you can expect if you donate machines is that GNU will run on them at an early date. The machine had better be able to operate in a residential area, and not require sophisticated cooling or power. Individual programmers can contribute by writing a compatible duplicate of some Unix utility and giving it to me. For most projects, such part-time distributed work would be very hard to coordinate; the independently-written parts would not work together. But for the particular task of replacing Unix, this problem is absent. Most interface specifications are fixed by Unix compatibility. If each contribution works with the rest of Unix, it will probably work with the rest of GNU. If I get donations of money, I may be able to hire a few people full or part time. The salary won’t be high, but I’m looking for people for whom knowing they are helping humanity is as important as money. I view this as a way of enabling dedicated people to devote their full energies to working on GNU by sparing them the need to make a living in another way. For more information, contact me. Arpanet mail: [email protected] Usenet: ...!mit-eddie!RMS@OZ ...!mit-vax!RMS@OZ US Snail: Richard Stallman 166 Prospect St Cambridge, MA 02139 • Linux Similarly, we can trace the inception of Linux: Path: gmdzi!unido!fauern!ira.uka.de!sol.ctr.columbia.edu!zaphod.mps.ohio-state.edu!wupost!uunet!mcsun!news.funet.fi!hydra!klaava!torvalds From: [email protected] (Linus Benedict Torvalds) Newsgroups: comp.os.minix Subject: What would you like to see most in minix? Summary: small poll for my new operating system Keywords: 386, preferences Date: 25 Aug 91 20:57:08 GMT Organization: University of Helsinki Hello everybody out there using minix - I’m doing a (free) operating system (just a hobby, won’t be big and professional like gnu) for 386(486) AT clones. This has been brewing since april, and is starting to get ready. I’d like any feedback on things people like/dislike in minix, as my OS resembles it somewhat (same physical layout of the file-system (due to practical reasons) among other things). I’ve currently ported bash(1.08) and gcc(1.40), and things seem to work. This implies that I’ll get something practical within a few months, and I’d like to know what features most people would want. Any suggestions are welcome, but I won’t promise I’ll implement them :-) 2 (a) Full Ubuntu installation on a dedicated partition (b) Open Virtualization Archive with (c) Windows Ubuntu installer (depre- ROS fuerte on Ubuntu 12.04.1 LTS cated) Figure 1: GNU/Linux (Ubuntu) installation alternatives Linus ([email protected]) PS. Yes - it’s free of any minix code, and it has a multi-threaded fs. It is NOT protable (uses 386 task switching etc), and it probably never will support anything other than AT-harddisks, as that’s all I have :-(. • Linux From Scratch and related projects You will most likely get a GNU/Linux operating system in a form of distribution. See http://distrowatch.com/ for a comprehensive list of distributions. At the time of writing (October 1, 2012), these are the five most popular distributions according to DistroWatch: Mint, Mageia, Ubuntu, Fedora and openSUSE. Installation alternatives Installation alternatives for Ubuntu are shown in Fig. ?? 1.1 Ubuntu Installing Ubuntu by itself shouldn’t be a problem. Things can get a bit more complicated if you want to install Ubuntu alongside Windows. Then you have to consider disk partitioning and a boot manager. Ubuntu’s installer even pro- vides an option to automatically resize an existing Windows partition (which is probably the most common scenario). In case of a more complicated parti- tion setup this can be done manually. GNU parted and it’s Gnome frontend, GParted are included on Ubuntu install/live CD. The version included in the latest 12.04.1 LTS can resize/move fat16/32 and ntfs partitions. Preparation activities (a.k.a. backup) are recommended! Full guide is available on Ubuntu community documentation, HowtoResizeWindowsPartitions. Events like Linux InstallFest at KSET may be helpful. 1.2 Open Virtualization Archive NooTriX provides an OVA with ROS fuerte preinstalled on Ubuntu 12.04.1 LTS. Open Virtualization Format is an open standard and is supported by wide variety of virtualization software. E.g. you can use VirtualBox. The installation of this OVA using VirtualBox is described in detail in a blog post at NooTrix. 3 / bin home media root sbin var usr ... cdrom0 Storage bin include ... share DC44B9E244B9BF96 1.3 Windows Ubuntu installer This method is deprecated starting from Ubuntu 13.10, and is not recommended for older distributions either, due to its sensitivity to forced shutdowns. 2 Basic usage Note on Notation • $ sign signifies a regular user prompt • # sign signifies a superuser prompt • Text in "monospace" font is to be entered literally, e.g. user@host:~$ mkdir /tmp/test • Pair of matching less/greater than signs (<>) denotes a "variable": $ cd /home/<username> • Pair of matching brackets denote an optional entry: $ ls[-l] Files and directories • Where are we? user@host:/tmp$ pwd • What’s inside? user@host:/tmp$ ls • Additional options user@host:/tmp$ ls -la • How to move/navigate? user@host:/tmp$ cd test • How to create a file? user@host:/tmp/test$ nano newfile.txt • How to delete a file? user@host:/tmp/test$ rm newfile.txt Filesystem Hierarchy Standard http://www.pathname.com/fhs/ 4 Filesystem permissions $ rm -rf /root • Remove the root user home directory rm: cannot remove `/root/.bashrc’: Permission denied ... $ ls -ld /root • Every file/directory has permissions drwxr-xr-x 34 root root 4096 2012-09-21 17:00 /root set for three roles: owner, group and all others. • Tools that manipulate ownership and permissions: chown, chgrp and chmod. Superuser (root) • Login disabled for root • Multiple users can be designated as superusers using sudo (/etc/sudoers) user@host:~$ • Gaining a root shell sudo -i root@host:~# Help • Almost all programs/commands have inbuilt help $ ls --help • For in–depth help use info..