www.nature.com/scientificreports There are amendments to this paper OPEN Changes in climate patterns and their association to natural hazard distribution in South Tyrol (Eastern Italian Alps) Romy Schlögel 1,6*, Christian Kofer2,5, Stefano Luigi Gariano 3, Jean Van Campenhout 4 & Stephen Plummer7 In Alpine regions changes in seasonal climatic parameters, such as temperature, rainfall, and snow amount have already been observed. Specifcally, in the South Tyrol area, meteorological observations indicate that temperatures are increasing and the number of snow days has generally diminished over time with perennial snow line now observed at higher elevations. Changes in rainfall have also been observed with more events associated with higher temperatures in the summer season. Natural hazards - mainly debris and mud fows, landslides, avalanches, rock falls, and (fash) foods - that afect this area every year, damaging population and infrastructures, are either weather or cryosphere-related. While these events have been recorded sporadically since the beginning of the 20th century, a systematic approach of their inventory has been done by local authorities since the 1990s. So far, Earth observation data has not been exploited to complete or complement existing inventories nor have they been used to investigate the infuence of climate perturbation on potentially dangerous natural phenomena. The research presented here thus has three objectives: (i) analyse long time series of climate data and hazard occurrence in South Tyrol to examine if these records exhibit a coherent response of hazards to changes in climate; (ii) measure the spatio-temporal evolution of climatic and natural hazard events recorded, and (iii) explore potential relations between meteorological conditions and the hazard occurrence. In this context, in-situ and satellite-based climate data are exploited to study natural hazard triggers while the potential of Earth observation data is evaluated as a complement to the existing historical records of natural hazards. Specifcally, Copernicus Sentinel-1 images are used to detect the spatio-temporal distribution of slow earth surface deformations and the results used for checking the completeness of the actual slow-moving landslide inventories. Hazard-related changes in the South Tyrolian landscape have also been analysed in relation to particular meteorological events at a regional scale, assessing trends and anomalies. Results show that: (i) satellite data are very useful to complement the existing natural hazard inventories; (ii) in-situ and satellite-based climate records show similar patterns but difer due to regional versus local variability; (iii) even in a data-rich region such as the analysed area, the overall response of natural hazard occurrence, magnitude, and frequency to change in climate variables is difcult to decipher due to the presence of multiple triggers and locally driven ground responses. However, an increase in the average annual duration of rainfall events and debris fow occurrence can be observed. Mountains have been acknowledged as “sentinels of environmental change” because they have physical dynamics that are readily identifable and respond more rapidly than other geographical entities to environmental change1. 1ESA Climate Ofce, ECSAT, Didcot-Harwell, OX11 0FD, United Kingdom. 2Institute for Earth Observation, Eurac Research, Bozen, 39100, Italy. 3CNR IRPI, Perugia, 06127, Italy. 4Department of Geography, University of Liege, Liege, 4000, Belgium. 5Faculty of Science and Technology, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, Bozen, 39100, Italy. 6Present address:, Division for Satellite Analysis and Applied Research (UNOSAT), UNITAR, United Nations Ofce at Nairobi, Nairobi, 00200, Kenya. 7Data Applications Division, ESRIN, Frascati, 00044, Italy. *email: romy.schlogel@ gmail.com SCIENTIFIC REPORTS | (2020) 10:5022 | https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-61615-w 1 www.nature.com/scientificreports/ www.nature.com/scientificreports In several areas of the world they have been indicated to be highly susceptible to the impacts of a changing cli- mate. According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change2, there is a “high confdence that changes in temperature, glacial retreat, and/or permafrost degradation will afect slope instabilities in high mountains, and medium confidence that temperature-related changes will influence bedrock stability”. Furthermore, there is “medium confdence that high mountain debris fows will begin earlier in the year because of earlier snow-melt, and that continued mountain permafrost degradation and glacier retreat3 will further decrease the stability of rock slopes”. In high mountain areas, not only small-sized rock falls and ice falls, but also large rock slides and rock avalanches may become more abundant4,5. Higher levels of precipitation raise the potential for higher pore-water pressures in unstable volumes of rock and debris, e.g. promoting landslide formation6. Other research7,8 has demonstrated a link between slope failures, preceding, anomalously warm episodes in mountain- ous areas, and rapid thaw processes. Te study of the impacts of climate change on gravitational hazards can be attempted by adopting model- ling, empirical, or the combination of both methods9. Regarding the empirical approach, a number of investi- gators have analysed historical records of event occurrence, and compared them to meteorological and climatic variables, mostly rainfall and temperature10–12. Te majority of this work has focused on debris fows, shallow landslides and rock falls that occurred in areas characterised by a high mountain and mountain morphological setting, covering diferent periods in the range from mid-19th century to the present. However, while there is a theoretical understanding that gravitational hazards respond to changing climate conditions, it is still difcult to detect changes over mountainous regions in the observational records13,14, and ofen the results are contradictory or uncertain9. Some researchers5,15–17 have attempted to analyse the relationship between climatic variables and gravitational hazards (mostly, rock falls and debris fows) in the Alps, particularly in the Italian Alps, mentioning limitations due to complex mountainous systems and incompleteness of records. Over the last two decades, Earth Observation (EO) has become a common technique for environmental data collection for mapping hazards and disasters18. Klemes19 already stated that EO is a promising technique to investigate the extreme variability of hydrological and meteorological variables in mountainous terrain. Both Optical and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) data have been used to map natural hazard events but, even to date, most mapping operations still rely on manual and time-consuming interpretation techniques to achieve a high accuracy of process understanding20. SAR data have the advantage (compared to optical imagery) to be, in prin- ciple, unafected by cloud cover, which is ofen present in mountainous areas. Diferential SAR interferometry (DInSAR) is particularly useful for the detection and monitoring of slow ground deformations21. New constellations of short revisit time satellites (e.g. Copernicus Sentinels22) are beginning to provide suf- fcient information to locate and monitor ground surface changes23 and deformations as well as rates of the pro- cesses. Tools to process the huge data quantity ofered by the Copernicus Sentinels for hazard assessment (e.g.24) are already available and are being continuously developed in terms of processing methodology and sensor avail- ability. In addition EO measurements of value for the study of climate and climate change have started to become available for example through the European Space Agency’s Climate Change Initiative (CCI)25,26. Tese datasets are generally relevant for global use but in some cases can be applied to a complex mountainous context27–29. Te aim of this paper is to try to understand if changes in climate in complex mountainous areas can be observed to have an impact on the distribution, frequency and magnitude of natural hazards. Te area of study is South Tyrol (Autonomous Province of Bozen/Bolzano), Northern Italy (Fig. 1). Tis populated alpine region is strongly afected by natural hazards (NH): every year several weather-related NH such as debris fows, land- slides or avalanches, are recorded30–32. In particular, this research aims to provide insights in answering several questions. Is South Tyrol showing evidence of a changing climate in terms of extremes and trends which could be associated with similar changes in NH according to a consistent spatial pattern? Are ground-based records suf- fcient to obtain answers in the mountainous environment? What complementary information can be provided from EO if ground-based data are insufcient? Tis last objective is important because it allows the transfer of monitoring capability to other mountainous regions with only sparse in situ information. Tis study is structured to allow the assessment of similarities and diferences between various sources of information on NH in terms of observed climate trends and weather anomalies. Although existing inventories of NH events are known to be mostly incomplete, they give valuable insights on impacted areas and the changing occurrence of NH over time. As part of this analysis, SAR techniques are also assessed to examine how they could contribute to completing slow instability inventories especially in high elevations, where the existing