THE SCHWEICH LECTURES ON BIBLICAL ARCHAEOLOGY, 1925 THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT PALESTINE IN THE LIGHT OF ARCHAEOLOGY THE GOD OF BETH-SHAN THE RELIGION OF ANCIENT PALESTINE IN THE LIGHT OF ARCHAEOLOGY BY STANLEY A. COOK, M.A., LITT.D. FELLOW OF GONVILLE AND CAIUS COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY LECTURER IN HEBREW AND ARAMAIC THE SCHWEICH LECTURES OF THE BRITISH ACADEMY LONDON PUBLISHED FOR THE BRITISH ACADEMY BY HUMPHREY MILFORD, OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS AMEN HOUSE, E,C. 1930 OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS AMEN HOUSE, E.C. 4 LONDON EDINBURGH GLASGOW LEIPZIG NEW YOR~ TORONTO MELBOURNE CAPETOWN BOMBAY CALCUTTA MADRAS SHANGHAI HUMPHREY MILFORD PUBLISHER TO THE UNIVERSITY Printed in Great Britain PREFACE HE title and subject of this book will recall the in­ T auguration of the Schweich Lectures more than twenty years ago, when the late Samuel Rolles Driver gave an account of the contribution of archaeology and the monu­ ments to Biblical study. Modern Research as illustrating the Bible, the title of his lectures, was a subject to which that great and many-sided scholar felt himself closely drawn; and neither that book nor any of his other writings on the subject can be ignored to-day in spite of the time that has elapsed. For although much has been done, especially since the War, in adding to our knowledge of Oriental archaeo­ logy and in the discussion of problems arising therefrom, Dr. Driver performed lasting service, not only in opening up what to many readers was a new world, but also in setting forth, with his usual completeness and clearness, both the real significance of the new discoveries and the principles to be employed when the Biblical records and the 'external' evidence are inter-related.1 When, therefore, I was asked, in 1925, to deliver the Schweich Lectures, the suggestion that some account might be given of the work subsequent to 1908 encouraged the wish I had long entertained: to reconsider the religion of Palestine primarily and mainly from the point of view of archaeology. Dr. Driver's Schweich Lectures was still one of the most helpful books on the subject; but while it was unnecessary to traverse the ground which he had already covered, I could not take it for granted that my audience would necessarily have any special knowledge of his or any other similar work. Accordingly, I did not hesitate to repeat well-known facts and even to use familiar illus- 1 See the important remarks in his Introduction to the Literature of the Old Testament, 8th ed., Preface, pp. xviii sqq.; and Genesis (in the West­ minster Commentary Series), Introduction, pp. xlviii sqq.; also the essay cited below, p. 2, n. 2. vi PREFACE trations which could already be found in his book or else­ where. I aimed at furnishing a fresh and general survey of what archaeology was contributing to our knowledge of Palestinian religion, and, making a fairly extensive survey, I attempted to show that here was a fascinating field, the importance of which was hardly realized as it deserved. For the prolonged delay in the publication of the Lec­ tures I can only offer the sincerest apologies. Their pre­ paration had taken me away from other tasks which had first claim, and a much more formal treatment proved necessary if the book was to be worthy of the series. Con­ sequently, although I have adhered to the scheme and scope of the original Lectures, they have been rewritten, considerably expanded, and illustrated afresh. The delay has, however, enabled me to use much new and valuable material. I need only mention the discoveries at Byblus and Beisan (Beth-Shan) since 1925, the brilliant articles by Father Hugues Vincent in the Revue Biblique on these and other excavations, the encyclopaedic volumes on Zeus (i and ii. 1, 2) by my colleague, Dr. A. B. Cook, which have so much that appeals to the Orientalist; and, not least of all, the new edition of Gressmann's admirable Altorientalische Texte und Bilder ;:,um Alten Testament. By means of references to these and other works I have tried to minimize overlapping with standard works and the repetition of better known illustrations, especially those contained in other volumes of the Schweich Lectures. A handbook naturally lay far outside my scope, but the endeavour has been made to provide an introductory account with notes and references for interested readers. The /mass of material is steadily increasing, and it has not always been easy to steer between the extremes of a sketch lacking the references which students need, and the fullness of detail which ordinary readers find wearisome. 1 As it is, 1 I attempted the former in Th Religion of Ancient Palestine in the Second Millennium B.C. in the Light of Archaeology and the Inscriptions (Con­ stable's Religions Ancient and Modern, 19o8). PREFACE Vil while the latter may freely ignore the innumerable foot­ notes, students, it is hoped, will quickly grasp the method adopted to facilitate reference to the most frequently cited works (see Bibliography, p. 23r). The reader will soon discover that in order to illustrate Biblical beliefs and customs it is frequently necessary to go outside the land of Israel. After all, the Israelites were only a small part of a much larger group of closely inter-related peoples. At the same time, it constantly happens that the archaeological material from the land itself cannot be readily interpreted from Biblical or Palestinian sources alone. Consequently a narrow treatment of the subject is impossible. But an adequate discussion of the many points that arise would involve difficult questions of Biblical Criticism and Comparative Religion, and however essential they may be for the understanding of the Bible, this was not the place for them. Hence I have deliberately left on one side questions of the literary and historical criticism of the Biblical records, and all theories of the development of religion, whether within the Bible or in the lands amid which the Bible grew up. I have allowed the archaeological evidence-fairly and honestly interpreted, as I believe-to speak for itself. To what extent a compilation of this kind is indebted to others will be evident from the references, and it is a pleasant duty to make grateful acknowledgement of the courtesy I have met with on all sides. In particular I would express my indebtedness to the University of Pennsylvania Museum and Mr. Alan Rowe for allowing me to make free use of their remarkably interesting discoveries at Beth-Shan; to the Louvre, to M. Cumont and M. Dussaud and the publishers of Syria for photographs and permission to use their articles; to Pere Dhorme and Pere Vincent of the Ecole Biblique, Jerusalem, for photographs, and to the latter especially for information on the mosaic at Ain Duk (p. 207); to the late Father Orfali for the photograph of the wheeled coffer at Capernaum; to the American viii PREFACE colony, Jerusalem, for the interesting photograph of the 'Rock'; to the Egyptian Department of the Berlin Museum, to Prof. Dalman, and, above all, to the late Hugo Gressmann, for photographs and kindly help; to Dr. A. B. Cook and the Syndics of the Cambridge University Press for the photographs and blocks specified in their proper place; to Dr. H. R. Hall, Keeper of Egyptian and Assyrian Departments, British Museum, for permission to have photographs of various seals; to Dr. G. F. Hill, Keeper of Coins at the British Museum, and also to the Keeper of Coins at the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge, for casts of coins. I have especially to thank the Palestine Exploration Fund for the loan of numerous blocks without which this book could not have been so fully illustrated. I am also indebted to the British Academy for kindly permitting me to expand the original lectures and publish them in their present form; and here I would like to record my deep appreciation of the friendly interest which the late Secretary, Sir Israel Gollancz, throughout took in the work: to his guidance and suggestions I owed much at every stage. Finally, in the course of passing the sheets and illustrations through the press I have been indebted for much practical advice and help to Mr. John Johnson, Printer to the University, Oxford, and his staff. 1 STANLEY A. COOK. July, 1930. 1 It may be added that a chronological scheme more precise than that on pp. 242-4 divides each of the chief periods into two, and dates the second respectively: Middle Bronze ii, 1800 B.c.; Late Bronze ii, / 1400 B.c., and Early Iron ii, goo B.c. As English measures are used in this book it may be useful to state that 1 yard = 0•91438 metre, and 1 metre = 39·37079 inches, or roughly I I yards = IO metres. CONTENTS PREFACE V LIST OF PLATES xi CHAPTER I. MISCELLANEOUS EXAMPLES Archaeology, its definition and value, 1. The geographical, cultural, and chronological relations of Palestine, 5. Value of ancient and modern traditions, 8. Stone-cults, 10. Interpretation of cup-marks, &c., 12. Rock-altars, &c., 15. Stones, altars, &c., for deities or the dead, 18. Seats for deities, the 'empty throne', 20. Triads, stones with symbols, &c., 24. Steps and ladders, 25. Bulls and altars, 27. Horns as symbols, 29. Conveyance of deities, or their symbols, 3 1. Care of the dead, 35. Meals with deities and the dead, 38. 'Seeing' the deities: scenes of introduction, 40. Protection of worshippers, 42. Deities and kings, 43. The ankh or sign oflife, 45. The winged solar disk, 4 7. Wings of deities, cherubim, &c., 52.