Quaternary Marine Terraces on Cyprus: Constraints on Uplift and Pedogenesis, and the Geoarchaeology of Palaipafos ZOMENIA ZOMENI Ph.D. 2012 AN ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION OF Zomenia Zomeni for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Soil Science presented on June 12, 2012 Title: Quaternary Marine Terraces on Cyprus: Constraints on Uplift and Pedogenesis, and the Geoarchaeology of Palaipafos Abstract approved: _____________________________________________________________________ Jay S. Noller Numerous flights of Quaternary marine terraces are present around the island of Cyprus, in the Eastern Mediterranean. These terraces are a result of the global eustatic sea-level curve and local tectonism. Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 5 through MIS 13 terraces are identified, mapped and dated. Palaeoshoreline elevation, an excellent indicator for a past sea–level, and new numerical geochronology are used to calculate an Upper Pleistocene uplift rate for various coastal sectors. Southwestern Cyprus presents the highest uplift rates of 0.35-0.65 mm/year with other sections suggesting uplift of 0.07-0.15 mm/year. This Upper Pleistocene tectonic signal is attributed to an active offshore subduction/collision system to the southwest of Cyprus, evidenced from the seismic activity offshore and the surface expression of a blind thrust fault in the Pafos region. Soil chronosequences and geology in southwestern Cyprus are studied in order to understand the Quaternary development on this uplifting landscape. Soil profile properties are used to calculate a profile development index (PDI), a method often applied to geomorphic surfaces as a relative dating method. Well-developed red and clayey soils occur in the coastal sector, on broad and low-angle surfaces, specifically on marine terraces and alluvial fans. Higher elevations of steep slopes consisting of carbonate and ophiolite lithologies host poorly developed soils. Results show variable PDI’s on uplifted terraces, obscured by transported materials, active alluvial fan buildup and hillslope erosion. Calcium carbonate build-up in soil profiles in the form of nodular and laminar accumulations are used as another relative dating method. Geochronology of marine terraces is used as an age range approximation for carbonate stages. Geomorphologic mapping focuses on the southeastern part of the Pafos thrust fault, the only point on the landscape where this otherwise blind fault is exposed on the surface. This is the location of Palaipafos, an important Ancient polity, today the site of the village of Kouklia. Geoarchaeological study suggests little landscape change over the last 4000 years in the vicinity of the urban core of Palaipafos, this being attributed to bedrock and landscape resistance of its location, a plateau at 80 m amsl. Copper deposits in the Palaipafos hinterland had provided a valuable resource at one time. Soil and water resources continue to sustain agriculture.Tectonic uplift in this part of the Pafos thrust fault is estimated to be 2.1mm/year, considered, together with Late Holocene sea-level change responsible for the shifting locations and eventual abandonment of the Palaipafos harbor in the coastal lowlands. ©Copyright by Zomenia Zomeni June 12, 2012 All Rights Reserved Quaternary Marine Terraces on Cyprus: Constraints on Uplift and Pedogenesis, and the Geoarchaeology of Palaipafos by Zomenia Zomeni A DISSERTATION submitted to Oregon State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Presented June 12, 2012 Commencement June 2013 Doctor of Philosophy dissertation of Zomenia Zomeni presented on June 12, 2012 APPROVED: ___________________________________________________________________ Major Professor, representing Soil Science ___________________________________________________________________ Head of the Department of Crop and Soil Science ___________________________________________________________________ Dean of the Graduate School I understand that my dissertation will become part of the permanent collection of Oregon State University libraries. My signature below authorizes release of my dissertation to any reader upon request. ___________________________________________________________________ Zomenia Zomeni, Author ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to thank Mr Pericleous of the English School in Cyprus who first opened my eyes to soils, geology, geography and the Troodos Ophiolite. I would like to thank the people of the University of Arizona and the Fulbright Commission who supported me from my freshman years in Engineering to the time of my graduate years. My seven years in Arizona and my field experience in this arid environment gave me knowledge for my later work in Cyprus and my understanding of “the landscape”. Here, I would like to express gratitude to Professor William Bull, one of the greatest geomorphologists of his time who helped me acquire understanding and appreciation for analytical geomorphology and soils, both in the classroom and in the desert of Arizona. I would like to thank the people of Oregon State University and especially Professor Jay Noller, who introduced me to the wonderful world of Cyprus geomorphology, Quaternary geology, soils and geoarchaeology. I would like to thank his wife Dr Lisa Wells for making the first link between my past experiences and my future research. I would like to thank my OSU committee members and Professor Russ Karrow, the Department Head, for supporting non – traditional students. Dr. Amy Dreves for making her house the warmest, most quiet and hospitable environment and all her friends in Corvallis who made me feel at home especially during my third pregnancy in Corvallis during my Preliminary exams. The people of the Archaeological Research Institute of the University of Cyprus for becoming my local academic home and especially Professor Maria Iacovou for offering support and guidance. I would like to thank the people of the Cyprus Geological Survey, and especially Ioannis Panayides and Iosephina Stylianou, for providing the most friendly and supportive environment. Dr Costas Xenophontos and Dr Sozos Zomenis for becoming my mentors in geology after their retirement from the Cyprus Geological Survey. Last but not least, I would like to thank my wonderful husband geologist George Nikitas, my four children, my parents, my sister and friends for providing many hours of babysitting and help. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page 1 Introduction to the Quaternary geology of Cyprus ........................................................... 1 1.1 Main Objectives ............................................................................................... 1 1.2 East Mediterranean tectonic setting ................................................................... 2 1.3 Geological structure of Cyprus ........................................................................... 4 1.4 Seismicity and tectonics .................................................................................. 10 1.5 Quaternary stratigraphy .................................................................................. 15 1.5.1 Plio-Pleistocene Nicosia Formation ................................................................ 17 1.5.2 Apalos Formation ........................................................................................... 20 1.5.3 Fanglomerate ................................................................................................. 23 1.5.4 Marine terraces and aeolianites ..................................................................... 25 1.5.5 Alluvium and colluvium .................................................................................. 27 1.5.6 Coastal deposits ............................................................................................. 29 1.5.7 Tsunami deposits ........................................................................................... 32 1.6 Palaeoclimate ................................................................................................ 36 1.7 Oceanography ............................................................................................... 40 1.8 Geomorphology and Quaternary evolution ....................................................... 42 1.9 The first humans and land use ......................................................................... 47 1.10 Study problems to be answered ....................................................................... 57 1.10.1 Eustacy vs uplift in differentiating marine terraces, hypothesis for Chapter 2 . 58 1.10.2 Rates of pedogenesis, hypothesis for Chapter 3 ............................................. 58 1.10.3 Landscape response, hypothesis for Chapter 4 ............................................... 59 2 Quaternary Uplift of Marine Terraces in Cyprus ............................................................. 60 2.1 Main Objectives ............................................................................................. 60 TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued) Page 2.2 Marine terraces in the Eastern Mediterranean .................................................. 60 2.3 Cyprus Marine Terraces .................................................................................. 63 2.4 Methodology ................................................................................................. 66 2.4.1 Use of existing geological and topographical data .......................................... 67 2.4.2 Field Mapping ...............................................................................................