SOFT POWER AND THE QING STATE: PUBLISHING, BOOK COLLECTION, AND POLITICAL LEGITIMACY IN EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY CHINA BY LAWRENCE C. CHANG DISSERTATION Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in East Asian Languages and Cultures in the Graduate College of the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, 2013 Urbana, Illinois Doctoral Committee: Professor Kai-wing Chow, Chair Professor Ronald Toby Professor Rania Hunitington Professor Dan Shao Abstract I explore the process by which the Qianlong emperor, who ruled China from 1736 to 1799, and his officials attempted to consolidate the political legitimacy of the Manchu ruling house over the Han Chinese populace through using institutions inside and outside the state to distribute imperial writings. The Qianlong emperor sought to appeal to the values of the Han Chinese literati in writings where he discusses his own understanding of Chinese ideals pertaining to statecraft, emphasizing how it is necessary for the ruler to share political power and concede to authority external to himself. Both officials and private publishers disseminated copies of the emperor’s writings through a variety of channels, most notably commercial bookstores and academies. Active cooperation between officials and the local elite was also crucial in the use of institutions to collect books for the bibliographic project “The Complete Collection of the Four Treasuries”, which the emperor initiated in order to showcase his support for civil learning. I argue that the variety of social classes and channels involved both in the distribution of imperially authored works and in the collection of books demonstrated an approach to consolidating political legitimacy that was more subtle and indirect than other methods that have been studied. I demonstrate that the eighteenth-century state that had ruled China sought to deploy soft power through the use of print media to appeal to the values of their subjects, reflecting strategies for affirming political legitimacy similar to those used by modern states. ii Acknowledgements My thanks go out to a great number of people who guided me through this study of a particular strategy of governance. My adviser Kai-wing Chow was instrumental in shaping the dissertation from its conception to its final form. His insights encouraged me to consider the variety of ways that power is exercsied and how to consider them against previous and current cocneptions of governance in early modern China. The guidance of the other members of my dissertation committtee was also enormous. The guidance of Ronald Toby was crucial. His insistence on reaching out to those beyond the China field to address general issues of readership has helped me consider the Qing conditions in a comparative perspective. Rania Huntington ensured that I gave ample attention to the role of literary criticism and its link to political goals. Dan Shao insisted that I broaden my perspective as much as possible to link my argument with other issues in Chinese history. Other colleagues also contributed to the writing of this dissertation. Joshua Herr inspired me to conceptualize the Qing state’s attempt to assert poltiical legitmacy in terms of the concept of soft power. Lane Harris generously assisted with editoral matters and raised probing questions that deepend my analysis. I thank Akira Shimizu and Li E for their helpful suggestions. I thank the staff of the First Historical Archives in Beijing for their generosity in allowing me to conduct research, and for assistance in locating documents. The unceasing support of my family was crucial in completing this project. All mistakes are in the end my responsibility. iii Abbreviations GZDA, WJL-Gongzhong dang’an 宮中檔案, Wenjiao lei 文教類 (Imperially Rescripted Archives, Division of Civil Education). The First Historical Archives of China, Beijing LST, SKQSHY-Leshantang quanji 乐善堂全集 (The Complete Collection of Essays from the Hall of Delight in Doing Good). Siku Quanshu Huiyao 四库全书荟要. Shijie Shuju, 1983. RZHS, SKQSHY-Rizhi Huishuo 日知荟说 (Knowledge Accumulated Day by Day), Siku Quanshu Huiyao 四库全书荟要. Shijie Shuju, 1983. TSSC-Tang Song shi chun 唐宋诗醇 (Essence of Tang and Song Poetry). Ran Ran 冉 冉, ed. Beijing: Zhongguo sanxia chubanshe, 1997. TSWC-Tang Song wen chun 唐宋文醇 (Essence of Tang and Song Prose). Ran Ran 冉 冉, ed. Beijing: Zhongguo sanxia chubanshe, 1997. QGZSL-Qing Gaozong Shilu 清高宗实录 (Vertiable Records of the Gaozong Reign of the Qing Dynasty). Zhonghua Shuju, 1985 ZXSKQSDA-Zuanxiu Siku Quanshu Dang'an 纂修四库全书档案 (Records on Editing the Complete Collection of the Treasures). Shanghai guji chubanshe, 1997. All romanizations follow the pinyin system aside from titles and quotations. iv Table of Contents Introduction..........................................................................................................................1 New Qing History and Identity Politics...............................................................................4 Political Legitimacy and the Appeal to Cultural Values during the Qing...........................7 Political Legitimacy, Cultural Values, and Soft Power.....................................................10 Printed Texts and the Deployment of Soft Power in the Eighteenth Century...................14 The Emperor, the Bureaucracy, and the Elites..................................................................21 Chapter Outline..................................................................................................................27 Chapter One: Qianlong’s Appeal to Han Chinese Values.................................................30 The Imperial Printing Office and the Political Power of Print..........................................32 Concerns about the Legitimacy of Manchu Rule..............................................................35 Staging Identity versus the Internalization of Beliefs........................................................39 The Qianlong Emperor and Confucian Norms..................................................................42 Fallibility and Acceptance of Remonstrance.....................................................................55 Manchu Emperor as a Literary Critic of Han Chinese Literature......................................57 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................68 Chapter Two: From the Appeal to Interests to the Threat of Punishment: Shifts in the Writings of the Qianlong Emperor....................................................................................70 Disillusionment and Expectations: Political Scandals and Anti-Manchu Publications.....71 Recalling and Republication of Leshantang quanji…………...........................................74 Tang Song Shicun..............................................................................................................77 Military Valor as a Chinese Value.....................................................................................82 The Reception of the Imperial Image: Qianlong and his Audience...................................86 Between the State and the Elites........................................................................................88 The Desire for Social Mobility and Imperial Writings......................................................90 Conclusion.........................................................................................................................91 Chapter Three: Circulation Routes and their Significance in the Assertion of Political Legitimacy……………………………………………………………………………….93 The Print Industry during the Mid-Qing Period................................................................94 The Political Uses of the Print Industry.............................................................................95 The Importance of Reproduction by Commercial Publishers............................................99 Other Channels.................................................................................................................112 Changing Editions............................................................................................................115 Policing Editions..............................................................................................................120 Economic Benefits...........................................................................................................121 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................122 v Chapter Four: Methods of Collection and their Significance for Political Legitimacy...125 Power Balance between the Actors Involved in Collection.............................................127 The Role of the Commercial Publishers..........................................................................137 The Aid of the Gentry......................................................................................................142 Pre-publication Censorship..............................................................................................148 Evaluating the Quality of Books......................................................................................153 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................155 Conclusion.......................................................................................................................157