report contains the collective views of an iational group of experts and does not ssarily represent the decisions or the stated v of the United Nations Environment Pro- mme. the International Labour Organisa- Jon, or the World Health Organization. Environmental Health Criteria 25 SELECTED RADIONUCLIDES TRITIUM CARBON-14 KRYPTON-85 STRONTIUM-90 IODINE CAESIUM-137 RADON PLUTONIUM Published under the joint sponsorship of the United Nations Environment Programme. the International Labour Organization, and the World Health Organization World Health Organization Geneva. 1983 The International Programme on Chemical Safety (IPCS) is ajoint venture of the United Nations Environment Programme, the Interna- tional Labour Organisation, and the World Health Organization. The main objective of the IPCS is to carry out and disseminate evalua- tions of the effects of chemicals on human health and the quality of the environment. Supporting activities include the development of epidemiological, experimental laboratory, and risk-assessment methods that could produce internationally comparable results, and the development of manpower in the field of toxicology. Other ac- tivities carried out by IPCS include the development of know-how for coping with chemical accidents coordination of laboratory testing and epidemiological studies, and promotion of research on the mech- anisms of the biological action of chemicals. ISBN 92 4 154085 0 World Health Organization 1983 Publications of the World Health Organization enjoy copyright protec- tion in accordance with the provisions of Protocol 2 of the Universal Copy- right Convention. For rights of reproduction or translation of WHO publica- tions, in part or in toto. application should be made to the Office of Publica- tions, World Health Organization, Geneva. Switzerland. The World Health Organization welcomes such applications. The designations employed and the presentation of the material in this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the World Health Organization concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area or of its authorities, or con- cerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. The mention of specific companies or of certain manufacturers' products does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by the World Health Organization in preference to others of a similar nature that are not men- tioned. Errors and omissions excepted, the names of proprietary products are distinguished by initial capital letters. - l'RiNTED IN FINLAND 83 .501] -. VAMMALA 650]) -3- CONTENTS Paragraphs Page ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH CRITERIA FOR SELECTED RADIONUCLIDES ................ PREFACE 1 - 6 11 I. INTRODUCTION .............. 7 - 22 13 II. TRITIUM ................ 23 - 77 18 A. INTRODUCTION ............ 23 - 25 18 B. SOURCES .............. 26 - 57 18 1. Natural tritium ........ 26 - 29 18 2. Nuclear explosions ....... 30 - 33 19 3. Nuclear fuel cycle ....... 34 - 51 20 4. Tritium production plants 52 - 54 26 5. Consumer products ....... 55 - 56 26 6. Controlled thermonuclear reactors ........... 57 27 C. BEHAVIOUR IN THE ENVIRONMENT . 58 - 61 27 1. Natural and fallout tritium 58 - 59 27 2. Industrial releases ...... 60 - 61 28 D. TRANSFER TO MAN .......... 62 - 63 28 F. DOSIMETRY ............. 64 - 77 29 I. Dose per unit intake ...... 64 - 66 29 2. Dose per unit releaae ..... 67 - 77 30 F. REFERENCES ............. 36 III. CARBON-I4 ............... 78 - 112 40 A. INTRODUCTION ............ 78 - 80 40 B. SOURCES .............. 81 - 98 40 I. Natural carbon-14 ....... 81 40 2. Nuclear explosions ....... 82 - 84 41 3. Nuclear fuel cycle ....... 85 - 98 41 C. BEHAVIOUR IN THE ENVIRONMENT . . 99 - 102 46 D. TRANSFER TO MAN .......... 103 - 105 47 E. DOSIMETRY ............. 106 - 112 47 1. Dose per unit intake ...... 106 - 107 47 2. Dose per unit release ..... 108 - 112 48 F. REFERENCES ............. 50 IV. KRYPTON-85 ............... 113 - 150 52 A. INTRODUCTION ............ 113 - 117 52 - H. SOURCES .............. 118 - 128 53 I. Natural krypton-85 ....... 121 54 2. Nuclear explosions ....... 122 - 123 56 3. Nuclear fuel cycle ....... 124 - 128 55 -4- Paragraphs Page C. BEHAVIOUR IN THE ENVIRONMENT . 129 - 137 55 1. Dispersion in the atmosphere 130 - 133 56 2. Removal from the atmosphere 134 - 137 57 -. D. TRANSFER TO MAN .......... 138 - 141 59 E. DOSIMETRY ............. 142 - 150 60 1. Dose per unit exposure ..... 143 - 144 60 2. Dose per unit release ..... 145 - 150 62 F. REFERENCES ............. 65 V. STRONTIUN-90 .............. 151 - 211 68 A. INTRODUCTION ............ 151 - 154 68 B. SOURCES .............. 155 - 165 69 1. Nuclear explosions ....... 155 - 156 69 2. Nuclear fuel cycle ....... 157 - 165 70 C. BEHAVIOUR IN THE ENVIRONMENT . . 166 - 185 73 1. Movement in soil ........ 166 73 2. Transfer to plants ....... 167 - 171 73 3. Transfer to milk ........ 172 74 4. Transfer to diet ........ 173 - 181 74 5. Aquatic behaviour ....... 182 - 185 77 D. TRANSFER TO MAN .......... 189 - 192 78 E. DOSIMETRY ............. 193 - 211 80 1. Dose per unit intake ...... 193 - 197 80 2. Dose per unit release ..... 198 - 211 81 - F. REFERENCES ............. 87 VI. IODINE ................. 212 - 269 90 A. INTRODUCTION ............ 212 - 214 90 B. SOURCES .............. 215 - 234 90 1. Natural production ....... 215 - 216 90 2. Nuclear explosions ....... 217 - 220 91 3. Nuclear fuel cycle ....... 221 - 234 92 C. BEHAVIOUR IN THE ENVIRONMENT . . 235 - 255 97 Nuclear explosions ....... 235 - 241 97 Industrial releases ...... 242 - 255 99 D. TRANSFER TO MAN .......... 256 - 259 103 E. DOSIMETRY ............. 260 - 270 105 1. Dose per unit intake ...... 260 - 261 105 2. Dose per unit release ..... 262 - 270 106 F. REFERENCES ............. 111 VII. CAESIUM-137 .............. 271 - 336 116 INTRODUCTION ............ 271 - 274 116 SOURCES .............. 275 - 282 118 1. Nuclear explosions ....... 275 - 276 118 2. Nuclear fuel cycle ....... 277 - 282 119 -5- Paragraphs Page C. BEHAVIOUR IN THE ENVIRONMENT . 283 - 309 120 1. Fixation in soil ........ 283 - 286 120 2. Transfer to plants ....... 287 - 290 121 3. Transfer to milk ........ 291 122 4. Transfer to meat ........ 292 122 5. Transfer to diet ........ 293 - 301 123 6. The lichen—caribou—man foodchain ........... 302 - 303 126 7. Aquatic behaviour ....... 304 - 309 127 D. TRANSFER TO MAN .......... 310 - 319 128 Absorption and distribution in tissues .......... 310 - 314 128 Retention half—time ...... 315 - 317 129 3. Transfer factor ........ 318 - 319 130 E. DOSIMETRY ............. 320 - 336 130 Dose per unit intake ...... 320 - 324 130 Dose per unit release ..... 325 - 336 131 F. REFERENCES ............. 136 VIII. RADON ............... 337 - 395 143 A. INTRODUCTION ............ 337 - 340 143 B. SOURCES .............. 341 - 351 143 Outdoors ............ 341 - 344 143 Indoors ............ 345 - 351 145 C. BEHAVIOUR IN THE ENVIRONMENT . . 352 - 375 148 Release from soil ....... 352 - 355 148 Dispersion in air ....... 356 - 361 150 Indoor behaviour ........ 362 - 365 152 Radon daughter concentrations 366 - 375 155 D. TRANSFER TO MAN .......... 376 - 380 157 E. DOSIMETRY ............. 381 - 395 158 Dose per unit exposure ..... 381 - 393 158 Dose per unit release ..... 394 - 395 161 F. REFERENCES ............. 163 IX. PLUTONIUM ............... 396 - 456 169 A. INTRODUCTION ............ 396 - 401 169 B. SOURCES .............. 402 - 411 171 1. Nuclear explosions ....... 402 - 404 171 2. Nuclear fuel cycle ....... 405 - 406 172 3. Other sources ......... 407 - 411 172 C. BEHAVIOUR IN THE ENVIRONMENT . . 412 —4345 173 1. Movenent in soil ........ 412 - 416 173 2. Transfer to plants ....... 417 - 418 175 3. Transfer to animals ...... 419 - 420 175 4. Transfer to diet ........ 421 - 425 176 5. Aquatic behaviour ....... 426 - 434 177 -6- Paragraphs Page TRANSFER TO MAN .......... 435 - 443 179 DOSIMETRY ............. 444 - 456 182 - I. Dose per unit intake ...... 444 - 448 182 2. Dose per unit release ..... 449 - 456 184 REFERENCES ............. 188 01 RADIATION EFFECTS ........... 457 - 476 197 A. SOMATIC EFFECTS .......... 459 - 463 197 1. Early somatic effects ..... 459 - 461 197 2. Late somatic effects ...... 462 - 463 198 B. GENETIC EFFECTS .......... 464 - 465 198 C. DOSE-RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS . . 466 - 469 199 D. RISK ESTIMATES ........... 470 - 476 200 XI CONCLUSIONS .............. 477 - 491 203 A. RADIONUCLIDES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 477 - 481 203 B. DOSE ASSESSMENTS .......... 482 - 487 204 C. EFFECTS EVALUATION ......... 488 - 491 206 ANNEX ................. 208 EXCERPTS FROM "BASIC SAFETY STANOARDS FOR RADIATION PROTECTION 1982 EDITION" NOTE TO READERS OF THE CRITERIA DOCUMENTS - While every effort has been made to present information in the criteria documents as accurately as possible without unduly delaying their publication, mistakes might have occurred and are likely to occur in the future. In the interest of all users of the environmental health criteria documents, readers are kindly requested to com- municate any errors found to the Division of Environmental Health, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland, in order that they may be included in corrigenda which will appear in subsequent volumes. In addition, experts in any particular field dealt with in the criteria documents are kindly requested to make available to the WHO Secretariat any important published information that may have inadvertently been omitted and which may change the evalua- tion of health risks from