IDENTITY FORMATION OF FOREIGN RESIDENTS: A STUDY OF INDIVIDUALS IN MIDDLE TO LATE ADULTHOOD IN HOKKAIDO, JAPAN Geoffrey Scott Hughes A Thesis Submitted to the Graduate College of Bowling Green State University in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF ARTS August 2014 Committee: Christopher Frey, Advisor Hyeyoung Bang Sheri Wells-Jensen © 2014 Geoffrey Scott Hughes All Rights Reserved iii ABSTRACT Christopher Frey, Advisor An increasing number of people are relocating to foreign countries due in part to the influence of globalization, internationalization, and enhanced vocational opportunities abroad. By 2025, the workforce is expected to be the first generation of workers anticipated to live overseas due to improved employment opportunities and ease of travel (HR Grapevine, 2013). This increase will affect the lives of a large number of adult workers who reside in an Asian context such as Japan. This qualitative collective case study includes interviews with eight foreign participants from what is commonly referred to as “Western” countries who have lived in Hokkaido, Japan for five or more years. This study describes the identity formation and/or development process of these participants, who range in age from thirty-one to seventy-seven years old, and the influence this cultural context has on their adult identity development. This research applied the prevalent Japanese discourse of Nihonjinron and the cultural belief of the binary of uchi and soto to determine how and to what extent foreigners are accepted into Japanese society and/or culture. In addition, acculturation theories such as Sam & Berry’s Acculturation Strategies and Benet-Martínez & Haritatos (2005) Bicultural Identity Integration (BII) were implemented to indicate the individual changes to the identity of each participant due to their time in Japan. The results of this research suggest that Japan pushes foreigners and outside elements away from its culture and society, but it also requires them to reinforce Japanese identity. This dynamic resulted in participants often feeling between Japanese culture and their own respective culture while some defended their culture of origin. Alternatively, other participants changed in order to interact with Japanese society and enjoy the benefits of living in Japan. iv ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This thesis could not have been completed without the help, guidance, and support of many people. First, I would like to thank Dr. Christopher Frey for his patience and for going above and beyond what I thought a professor could do for his students. Dr. Frey helped me navigate through this program and also through Japan, and he helped me see the world in a different way. I would also be remiss if I did not thank my wonderful professors in the MACIE program, but especially Dr. Bang and Dr. Sheri Wells-Jensen for their time, effort, and energy. Also, I am fortunate to have been a part of an amazing and supportive cohort as well as being in the incredible MACIE program at Bowling Green State University. I would also like to thank Ellen for her guidance, as well as Sam for listening to my rants, and Elham for being able to understand my frustrations in this process. Also, I would like to thank my participants in this research and friends in Japan for such an amazing experience. I would also like to show appreciation for all those individuals who supported me outside of my program including honorary MACIE’s, my close and life-long friends Brice and Stamati, and Ana for her thesis gifts and for putting up with me when all I could talk about was my thesis. I have been fortunate to have such great examples in my life. Perhaps the biggest influence is my grandfather Dr. Donald Christian who provided the best academic example possible, and for always supporting my education. I would also like to thank my grandmother Mary Elizabeth Stewart for passing on a pursuit of learning that I have received through my father’s family. Last, but not least, I have been blessed with two wonderful parents, Bruce and Karen, who have been so selfless in their care and support for me. All that I am able to do is because of the brilliant impact you have made on my life. v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION…………….. ..................................................................... 1 Justification of Study.……………………………………………………………… 1 Organization of Chapters…………………………………………………………… 3 CHAPTER II. LITERATURE REVIEW…………………………………………………... 5 Nihonjinron……………………………………………………………………….... 5 The Legitimacy of Nihonjinron……………………………………………. 6 Nihonjinron as Discourse……………………………………….………….. 7 Pre-War and Postwar Nihonjinron…………………………………………. 9 Japanese Nationalism, Race, and Ethnicity……………………………………….... 12 Japanese Nationalism………………………………………………………. 13 Japanese Race…………………………………………………………….. .. 14 Japanese Ethnicity………………………………………………………… .. 15 The Binary of Uchi and Soto……………………………………………………….. 17 The Burakumin…………………………………………………………… .. 19 Foreigners in Japan…………………………………………………………. 20 Japanese Language…………………………………………………………………. 22 Japanese Communication: Forms of Language…………………………….. 25 Internationalization…………………………………………………………………. 26 The JET Programme……………………………………………………… .. 27 Identity……………………………………………………………………………… 29 Identity Formation and Aging……………………………………………. ... 30 vi Applying Erik Erikson……………………………………………………… 30 Erikson’s Stages of Adult Identity Formation: Intimacy versus Isolation…………………………………………………………….. 31 Generativity versus Stagnation…………………………………… .. 32 Integrity versus Despair…………………………………………….. 33 Collective Identity………………………………………………………….. 33 Work and Vocation Identity………………………………………………… 34 Identity and Gender………………………………………………………… 35 Identity Control Theory and Emotions…………………………………….. 35 Levels of Acculturation…………………………………………………….. 36 Bicultural Identity Integration……………………………………… 36 CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY………………………………………………………. .. 41 Main Research Questions………………………………………………………… .. 41 Qualitative Design: Case Study…………………………………………………….. 42 The Case Study Approach………………………………………………….. 43 Participants…………………………………………………………. 44 Research Procedure………………………………………………… 45 Data Collection Process……………………………………………. 46 Credibility and Validity of Study………………………………………………….. 46 Long-Term Involvement with Participants………………………………... 47 Rich Data…………………………………………………………………. .. 48 Data Analysis……………………………………………………………………… . 48 Limitations of Study……….. .................................................................................... 50 vii Researcher Bias…….. .................................................................................... 51 CHAPTER IV: FINDINGS….. ............................................................................................. 55 Qualitative Themes. ................................................................................................... 55 Participant Details.. ........................................................................................ 56 Theme One: Estrangement and Difference. ............................................................... 58 The Wall. ........................................................................................................ 59 The Language Barrier. ................................................................................... 61 The Perpetual Outsider.. ................................................................................ 63 “Disposable Employees”. .............................................................................. 69 Western Privilege.. ......................................................................................... 71 “The Noisy Foreigner” and Gender.. ............................................................. 74 Summary……… ........................................................................................................ 77 Interview Findings Theme Two: Acculturation and Identity.. .................................. 78 Individual Experiences… ............................................................................... 78 Summary............... ..................................................................................................... 88 Acculturation.. ............................................................................................................ 89 “Somewhere in the Middle”-The Third Culture.. .......................................... 89 “A Respect for What is Public”.. ................................................................... 98 Change of Worldview… ................................................................................ 100 Technology as a Valuable Connection…. ..................................................... 102 Opportunities Through Vocation… ............................................................... 105 Summary……. ........................................................................................................... 110 CHAPTER V: DISCUSSION…. ........................................................................................... 112 viii The Wall…………… ................................................................................................. 113 The Binary of Uchi and Soto…. ................................................................................ 116 “The Noisy Foreigner” and Gender… ....................................................................... 118 Acculturation and Identity…. .................................................................................... 120 “Somewhere in the Middle”-The Third