Contested and Contextual Identities: Ethnicity, Religion and Identity among the Pakhtuns of Malakand, Pakistan. Muhammad Ayub Jan PhD University of York Department of Politics September 2010 Abstract This study reflects on Pakhtun sense of belonging and suggests a complex and dynamic process of identification that involves multiple aspects. The multilayered, contextual and contested identification process among Pakhtuns indicates segmentary ethnicity that has intra ethnic, inter ethnic and national aspects. It argues that the literature on Pakhtun identity highlights the internal stratification and ecological variation amongst Pakhtuns but stop short of establishing any relationship between this internal stratification and the process of identification. The literature also fails to see the significance of the continuous and progressive identification of Pakhtuns with Pakistan and Islam. Focusing on generative processes (internal and external identification) in time of flux this thesis remains contemporary in its approach to ethnicity and identity. It also contributes to the debate in Social Anthropology about the relative emphasis on ‘boundary’ or the ‘cultural stuff’. The research focuses on Malakand in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa (Pakistan), which in its changing administrative status has hybridity of the ‘autonomous’ Tribal Areas and ‘governed’ Settled Districts. Such transforming status has a greater significance to investigate identity processes in time of flux and in the context of Pakhtun ecological variation. I have argued in this study that Pakhtuns in Malakand categorize each other as Khanan and Ghariban in times of socio economic change. These categories in reciprocal opposition maintain categorical boundary through a meaning system that is informed by particular patterns of social conduct. The two categories are also involved in contextual contestation over the ethnic identity i.e who is Pakhtun? The contestation involves alternative emphasis on ascribed and performing aspects of Pakhtunness in local and non local contexts. Pakhtuns also reflect on their Pakistani and Muslim identities in a progressive way. Although Pakhtun identity remains primary in relation to Pakistani identity, they do perceive themselves as belonging to a multi ethnic Pakistani identity. The non ideological and non sectarian Muslim identity remains significant to Pakhtuns. However, the current religious unrest in the region has generated a discourse that reconsiders the relationship between Pakhtun cultural code and Islam. The thesis thus concludes that dynamic identification processes among Pakhtuns of Pakistan indicate multilayered, contested and contextual Pakhtunness. This also alludes to the segmentary nature of ethnicity and the complexity of relationship between ethnicity and Islam in Pakistan. i List of contents List of illustrations vi Acknowledgements vii Author’s declaration ix Introduction 1 Inter ethnic and intra ethnic Pakhtun identity and Pakistani nationalism My identity and the field The plan of the thesis Chapter 1: Ethnicity and Identification in Pakistan: Theoretical perspectives 16 1.1: Ethnicity, identification and boundary making 17 Ethnicity in common descent or shared culture Identification Boundary or ‘cultural stuff’ 1.2: Bases of Pakhtun identity 25 Pakhto language Patrilineal descent and tribal identity Pakhtunwali Islam and Pakhtun identity 1.3: Theoretical Framework Focused 36 Internal processes and their complexity Inter-ethnic processes and identification ‘Ethnicity etcetera’: Anthropological approaches Conclusion 46 Chapter 2: Methodology 48 2.1 Research questions and proposed answers 48 ii 2.2 Case study 53 Justification for the case of Malakand Political and historical profile of Malakand Historical Sketch of Malakand Research field 2.3 Research Design 68 Background of the field work Access to the field and informants Fieldwork experiences Limitations of the study Research methods Conclusion 75 Chapter 3: Collective identification and Categorization in Malakand 76 3.1 Jirga Period (Da Jirgey pa wakh) 78 Anomalies in social categorization Migration in Malakand The emergence of Bazar (market) The transition 3.2 Post Jirga Period (Da Jirgey na pas) 93 ‘Group identification’ and ‘categorization’ Conclusion 103 Chapter 4: Categories, Boundaries and Contested meanings 104 4.1 Institutional Contexts of Boundary making 105 4.2 Behavioral Patterns and Boundary meanings 109 Ego and Achievement: defining behavioral Patterns Melmastiya (hospitality): Hujra (guest house) and Dukan (Shop) Honor (bravery): Business and Landownership Gham Kahdi (sorrow and Joy) Political Leadership: Party leaders and bazar mesharan (market elders) iii 4.3 Contested Meanings and Boundary strategies 120 Saliency and ‘transvaluation’ of boundary Conclusion 125 Chapter 5: Contested Pakhtun identity 126 5.1 Indigenous struggle and ethnic identification 127 Tribal Agency: Perverted or autonomous system Awami-khel’s struggle for ‘emancipation’ and ‘honor’ 5.2 Ascribed and Performing aspects of Pakhtunness 138 Literature on Ascribed and Performed aspects of Pakhtunness Ascribed and performed Pakhtunness in Malakand Ascribed Pakhtunness Performing Pakhtunness Overlapping between Ascribed and Performing Pakhtunness Conclusion 149 Chapter 6: ‘Pakistaniat’ of Pakhtuns 151 6.1 Ethnic identity as a primary identity 152 6.2 Integration of Pakhtuns in the State 154 Socio-economic integration of Pakhtuns in Pakistan Personification of Space 6.3 Sense of belonging to Pakistan: The Pakistaniat of Pakhtuns 158 Pakistani Nationalism Inter ethnic discourse of power and violence: the collision path The discourse of sacrifice ‘Pakistan has yet to become a nation’: Diversity in belonging Conclusion 177 Chapter 7: Religious identification 179 7.1 Islamic Contestation in Pakistan 181 iv Religious traditions in South Asia Deobandi Islam and its transformation Support for Sharia and Deobandi movements in Malakand Non Saliency of sectarian boundaries in Malakand 7.2 State Nationalism, Islam and Pakhtun identity 194 Pakhtun ethnicity and Islam in national context 7.3 Islam and Pakhtunwali: Convergence and Divergence 201 7.4 Islam and Pakhtun identity 207 Exclusivity in observing Islam Piety and austerity Religious categories Conclusion 213 Conclusion 215 Appendix 227 Bibliography 231 v List of illustrations Map 1: District Map of NWFP (Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) and FATA 56 Map 2: Administrative division of Malakand Protected Area 57 Map 3: Administrative division of Swat Rani Zai sub division of Malakand 57 vi Acknowledgments This research work would not have been possible without the help, support and encouragement of numerous people and institutions. Primarily, the gratitude goes to those outstanding institutions that substantially contributed to this project. The Higher Education Commission of Pakistan (HEC) deserves credit in first place, for providing me an opportunity to study at York. I am, profoundly thankful to HEC for granting me an ‘Overseas Scholarship’; and to its entire staff in Islamabad for extending its support in all possible manner. University of Peshawar (Pakistan), being my Alma Mater and employer granted a study leave to pursue PhD Degree in York, also deserves appreciation. I am also thankful to the staff at Department of Political Science, University of Peshawar, particularly its Chairman Dr. Taj Muharram Khan, for their support through out this study. I am indebted to University of York for hosting me to pursue a PhD degree. Distinctly, University of York is an exquisite place of learning which made my stay a delightful experience. Within this exceptional University, the Department of Politics and its entire staff deserves special appreciation for facilitating me in my studies. Finally the Pakistan High Commission in London also deserves mention for its timely release of funds under the HEC award. During the entire duration of this study many individuals contributed to this work by providing support, guidance and encouragement. First and foremost, my gratitude goes to Dr. Rob Aitken who not only passionately supervised this work by contributing intellectually but also encouraged me in my moments of despondency. He was also extremely helpful in matters indirectly related to this study. General outline and sections of the draft were read and commented by friends and colleagues including Sami Raza, Dr. Johar Ali, Shahida Aman, Noreen Naseer, Shahid Gul, Nasir Khan and Muhammad Saeed. I appreciate their valuable suggestions and encouragement. Field work was the most challenging aspect of this research project as it was conducted in the most testing times. My sincere thanks and gratitude goes to two of my very close friends Nasir Khan (Batkhela, Malakand) and Asad Ullah Khan (Thana, Malakand). These two friends and their families introduced me to the region long ago when I had not conceived this project. It was through them that I had my first acquaintance with Malakand. They were also most instrumental in arranging the entire vii field work. Without their assistance this most crucial aspect of the project would not have been materialized. The head of these families, particularly the late Shereen Khan of Batkhela and Hameed ullah Khan of Thana extended their love, support and encouragement which was extremely pivotal to this study. Besides these families a number of people facilitated the field work by extending their help through out my stay in Malakand and Peshawar. I am thankful to M. Zahir Shah Khan, Attaullah Khan, Ikram ullah Khan, Taimur Khan, Rafi