Durham E-Theses Aikid©oand spirituality: Japanese religious inuences in a martial art Greenhalgh, Margaret How to cite: Greenhalgh, Margaret (2003) Aikid©oand spirituality: Japanese religious inuences in a martial art, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/4081/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk AIK3DO AND SPIRITUALITY: JAPANESE RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES IN A MARTIAL _ ART A copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without his prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. A thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Arts in East Asian Studies in the Department of East Asian Studies University of Durham Margaret Greenhalgh December 2003 AUG 2004 COPYRIGHT The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it may be published without her prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. DECLARATION The material contained in this thesis has never been submitted for a degree in this or any other university. It is based on the author's individual research and has not been published before. AIKIDO AND SPIRITUALITY: JAPANESE RELIGIOUS INFLUENCES IN A MARTIAL ART Submitted by Margaret Greenhalgh for the degree of Master of Arts in East Asian Studies Abstract This thesis examines spirituality in the Japanese martial art aikido, which was created in the 1940s in Japan by Ueshiba Morihei. He described aikido entirely in spiritual terms and claimed that it is an art of peace which leads religion to completion. The study has two aims: first, to show how spirituality, defined as ultimate concern and action directed towards it, is possible in the context of a martial art; second, to gain an overview of the original teaching of Ueshiba Morihei which has been fragmented and often misunderstood since his death. After considering some conceptual hindrances to appreciation of spirituality in the martial arts, the main themes of Japanese spirituality are identified in order to provide context for spirituality in aikido. An analysis of Ueshiba's life and the evolution of aikido is then given. Spirituality in this martial art is then evaluated by comparing the aikido world view and method of practice with those of four religious belief systems influential in Japan: Daoism, Zen Buddhism, Shingon Mikkyo and Shinto. The research entailed reading and analysing primary and secondary documents concerning aikido in several languages scattered in private archives and libraries, as well as discussion with a member of the Omoto organisation, consultation of library resources and quality internet sites. By positioning aikido within a religious context, this work aims to provide a clearer understanding of the origins of aikido in Japanese spirituality and the intent of its founder. In so doing, it hopes to contribute to removing some of the confusion which has surrounded this art's role as spiritual technique since it spread outside Japan. 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT I INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER ONE: SPIRITUALITY IN THE MARTIAL ARTS 13 PART ONE - ISSUES AND OBSTACLES 13 Martial arts after the Meiji Restoration 15 Sports and the sacred/secular dichotomy / 9 Function as a means of evaluating spirituality 24 Issues of terminology: budd and bushidd 24 PART Two 32 MAIN THEMES OF JAPANESE SPIRITUALITY 32 The syncretic tradition 33 Interconnectedness of being 35 Non-duality, cosmic vision and the "path" to enlightenment. 36 Knowledge by direct experience 38 The body as instrument 39 Transformation through affirmation 42 The divine in the phenomenal 43 The concept ofki. 44 CHAPTER TWO: UESHIBA MORIHEI'S LIFE AND THOUGHT 48 Ueshiba Morihei - some impressions 49 Ueshiba 's life: a brief sketch 52 Ueshiba and the spiritual legacy of the martial arts 57 Ueshiba's personal asceticism, spiritual practice and experiences 58 Ueshiba and the state 60 Ueshiba's thought: sources and transmission 65 CHAPTER THREE:AIKD30 AND DAOISM - THE TRANSMUTATION OF KI 73 Daoist influence on Japanese culture 74 Daoism and the Japanese martial arts 77 Daoism and the nature of reality 79 Daoism andaikido: commoncohcepts 82 Daoism and aikido: principles of spiritual practice 86 CHAPTER FOUR: ZEN BUDDHISM AND AIKIDO: "EMPTINESS" AND BUDDHA- NATURE 96 Ueshiba and Zen Buddhism 96 Zen in the martial arts: fact or fantasy? 98 "Suzuki Zen " and Takuan Soho / 02 Zen and aikido: common approaches to reality 106 Zen and aikido practice: no-mind and development of the heart 110 CHAPTER FIVE: AIKIDO AND SHINGON MIKKYO - BODY, SOUND AND MIND 118 Identification with the cosmic Buddha 122 Aikidd and Tantricperspectives on the body 125 ii The three "secrets" as inspiration for aikido 128 CHAPTER SIX: AIKIDO AND SHINTOlST BELIEFS - MUSUBI, MISOGI AND KOTODAMA 136 Shinto in the Meiji era 137 Aikido and Omotokyo 141 Aikidd and kami 144 Aikido and the spiritual practices of Shinto 148 Aikido and kotodama 153 CONCLUSION 162 APPENDIX 1 167 APPENDIX 2 168 APPENDIX 3 172 BIBLIOGRAPHY 174 iii LIST OF FIGURES Number Page FIGURE 1 UESHIBA MORIHEI, FOUNDER OF AIKIDO 168 FIGURE 2 UESHIBA MORIHEI (RIGHT) PERFORMING CHINKON KISHIN 168 FIGURE 3 UESHIBA'S CALLIGRAPHY TRACING THE NAME OF THE KXM/MASAKATSU AGATSU KATSUHAYABI 168 FIGURE 4 UESHIBA MORIHEI PERFORMING IKKYO 169 FIGURE 5 UESHIBA MORIHEI PERFORMING A KOKYU-NAGE (BREATH THROW) 169 FIGURE 6 UESHIBA MORIHEI EXECUTING A TECHNIQUE WITHOUT TOUCHING 170 FIGURE 7 UESHIBA MORIHEI HONOURING THE SPIRIT OF AIKI 170 FIGURE 8 OMOTO ORGANISATION CENTRE AT AYABE 171 FIGURE 9 UESHIBA MORIHEI REVERING AMATERASU O-MIKAMI 171 FIGURE 10 KOSHINAGE, THE LIVING SYMBOLS OF YIN AND YANG, FROM SAOTOME MITSUGI, AIKIDO AND THE HARMONY OF NATURE (BOSTON & LONDON: SHAMBHALA PUBLICATIONS, 1993), PP. 24-25 172 FIGURE 11 SYMBOLS REPRESENTING AIKIDO MOVEMENT: (LEFT) YIN-YANG AND ITS UNDERLYING UNITY (RIGHT) KAMI, MUSUBI AND THE KOTODAMA SOUND SU 173 IV ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The author would like to thank several people who have made particular contributions to the completion of this research. These include my supervisor, Dr John Weste for his helpful comments, John Sparkes of the Combat Arts Archive, Darlington, for assistance in locating essential sources, Morimoto Hiromi for patiently clarifying Japanese concepts, Dr Charles Rowe for information concerning the Omoto organisation, Peter Boylan for sending me a copy of his dissertation, and the staff of Durham University Library and the Department of East Asian Studies. I am also indebted to the many aikido teachers and practitioners with whom I have been fortunate to practise, as well as those I have never met, but whose writings on aikido provided multiple perspectives on Ueshiba Morihei's inspiring creation. V CONVENTIONS Proper names are given according to Japanese usage, family name first and personal name last. Except for proper names, Japanese terms are given in italics, transcribed according to the standard Hepburn system. Chinese and Sanskrit words are also in italics. VI Introduction Spirituality in relation to the martial arts of East Asia is frequently mentioned in popular literature but has rarely been the subject of academic study. This is a considerable omission since these arts have formed an intrinsic part of the culture of numerous countries in that region for hundreds of years, and evidence of their close links with philosophical and religious traditions is strong. Among the modern martial arts most often mentioned in relation to the term "spirituality" is the Japanese martial art aikidd, created by the martial artist Ueshiba Morihei (1883-1969) in Japan in the 1940s as the fruition of a long life of experience of various Japanese sword and unarmed martial arts. Ueshiba was an intensely spiritual man, deeply immersed throughout his life in the practices of several Japanese religious traditions, and it is clear from his writings and records of his oral teachings that he saw the practice of aikido ( cHo,}!!, usually translated as "Way of Harmony of AJ"),1 as a spiritual journey. Describing aikidd, Ueshiba said: True Budo [martial way] is to become one with the universe or, it is to return to the unity of the self with the universe...Although some may ask if the Aiki of my budo comes from religion, it is not so. The True Budo shines forth and illuminates religion. It is a guide which leads incomplete religion to perfection.2 In this statement he made clear his view that the aikidd he created was spiritually oriented, even though practice of it did not require the framework of any 1 The term ki (qi or ch 7 in Chinese) is difficult to translate into English, but can be considered here as the psychophysical energy at the basis of all phenomena. A more detailed explanation is given in Chapter One (see page 44). The name aikidd was officially adopted in 1942. From 1922 to 1936 the art was known as aiki-bujutsu (and occasionally as Ueshiba-ryu), and from 1936 to 1941 (when it was assimilated into the Japanese martial arts organisation, the Butokukai), as aiki- budd. See Ueshiba Kisshomaru, The Spirit of Aikido, trans.