The Survey of Scottish Gaelic in Australia and New Zealand Thèse de Doctorat présentée devant la Faculté des lettres de l’université de Fribourg, en Suisse. St John Skilton, June 2004 - i - Table of Contents List of Figures x List of Tables x Acknowledgements xi Abbreviations Used xiii Preface - ‘And What Are you Doing Next Week?’ xiv 1 Scottish Gaelic as an Embedded Language xiv 2 Multiculturalism and Identity xv 3 Language Revival xv Chapter 1 Theoretical Perspectives 1 1.0 Introduction 1 1.1 Data Considerations 1 1.2 Research Priorities 2 1.3 An Overview of Scottish Gaelic in Scotland 3 1.3.1 Language Details 3 1.3.2 History and Demographic Studies 4 1.3.3 Change in Status and Change in Use? 6 1.3.3.1 Scottish Gaelic in Public Life and Education 6 1.4 Theoretical Perspectives 8 1.4.1 The Importance of ‘Reversing Language Shift’ 8 1.4.2 The Ideology of Native Language and Identity 10 1.4.3 Criticisms of Sociolinguistics 12 1.4.3.1 Questionable Claims About Society 13 1.4.3.2 Primitive and Civilised 14 1.4.3.3 Power Relations 15 1.4.3.4 Incorporating Authority 16 1.5 Practical Considerations 17 1.5.1 Discourse Analytical Approach and Methodology 17 1.5.2 Gaps in Critical Discourse Analysis 18 1.5.3 Ethnographic Involvement 19 1.5.4 Objectivity, Subjectivity 19 1.5.5 Social Engagement 20 1.5.6 Summary: Overall Approach 22 1.6 Relevance to Australia 23 1.6.1 Identity and the Naturalisation of Oppositions 23 1.6.2 ‘Ethnic, Anglo, Aboriginal’ 25 1.6.3 Language Activism in a Multicultural Society 26 1.7 Australian and Scottish: both Local and Global 28 1.7.1 Identity and Belonging 29 - ii - 1.7.2 Hybridity and Modernity 30 1.8 Goals of the Research 31 1.8.1 Arguments Beyond Language 31 1.8.2 Minority Languages and Institutionalisation 31 1.8.3 Language Revival 32 Chapter 2 Language Maintenance and Revival 33 2.0 Introduction 33 2.1 The Importance of Maintaining threatened languages 36 2.1.1 Linguistic Orthodoxy 36 2.1.2 The Loss of Basic Knowledge 37 2.1.3 Anthropological Loss 37 2.1.4 The Ecological Destruction Metaphor in Language Death 39 2.1.5 The Negative Rôle of the Nation-state 41 2.2 Linguistic Human Rights 42 2.2.1 The Importance of Linguistic Human Rights 43 2.2.2 Individual, Group and State Interactions and Linguistic Human Rights 43 2.2.2.1 Costs and Provisions 45 2.2.2.2 Legal Issues and Definitions 47 2.2.3 Issues of Power 48 2.2.4 Problems with Group Rights Arguments 52 2.2.4.1 Problems with Identity 54 2.2.4.2 Problems with Group Rights 57 2.2.4.3 Morality and Fairness 59 2.2.5 Language Legislation and Language Maintenance 59 2.2.5.1 Language Aspects of International Treaties 60 2.2.5.2 Ideological Arguments for Language Rights 62 2.2.5.3 LHRs as an Argument for Language Revival 63 2.2.5.4 Asymmetry in Language Legislation 66 2.2.5.5 Asymmetry and the Political Context of ‘Backlash’ 68 2.2.5.6 Asymmetry and Threats to Identity 69 2.2.5.7 Territoriality and Geographical Regions 70 2.3 Multilingual Societies 73 2.3.1 Monolingualism and Economic Arguments 73 2.3.2 Migration and Monolingualism Arguments 74 2.3.3 Achieving Parity 75 2.4 Conclusion 76 Chapter 3 Methodology 81 3.0 Introduction 81 3.1 Ethnographic Involvement 81 3.1.1 Definition of Research Subjects 83 3.1.2 Recruitment of Respondents 83 - iii - 3.1.3 Research Scope 85 3.2 Research Paradigm 85 3.2.1 Positivistic Aspects and ‘Applied Ethnography’ 85 3.2.2 ‘Critical’ Ethnography 86 3.2.3 Poly-vocal Nature of the Account 86 3.3 Advertising of the Survey and Recruitment of Respondents 86 3.3.1 Editorial Letters and Advertisements 86 3.3.2 Flyers and other promotional Material 88 3.4 Data Collection Methods 90 3.4.1 The Questionnaire and Initial Elicitation of Data 90 3.4.2 Why use a Questionnaire? 91 3.4.3 Questionnaire Design 92 3.4.3.1 Language Choice 92 3.4.3.2 Questionnaire Layout 92 3.4.3.3 Questionnaire Pre-testing 92 3.4.3.4 Questionnaire Legibility and Design 93 3.4.4 Range of Questions 94 3.4.4.1 A Basic Profile 94 3.4.4.2 Learning and Usage Questions 94 3.4.4.3 Society, Cultural Attributes and Attitudes 95 3.5 Follow-up After Questionnaire Administration 96 3.5.1 Participant Observation 96 3.5.2 The Researcher’s Status - ‘Because you sounded posh on the ‘phone’ 97 3.5.2.1 Project Description for Respondents 97 3.5.3 Determining Who to Interview 99 3.5.4 Interviewing Respondents 100 3.5.4.1 Preserving Anonymity 101 3.6 Elicitation of Further Data for the Survey 101 3.7 Summary 102 Chapter 4 Second-Language Education in Australia and the 103 Position of Scottish Gaelic 4.0 Introduction 103 4.1 A Brief Overview of Language Education in Australia 104 4.1.1 The Importance of the Education Domain 104 4.1.2 Responsibility for Education 106 4.1.3 Language Policy, Language Teaching–Integration to Multiculturalism 107 4.2 Overview of Policy Statements 109 4.2.1 Recent Federal Policy on Language Education 109 4.2.2 Australian States Policy Statements on Language Policy 110 4.3 Analysis of Published Statistics – New South Wales. 112 4.3.1 Primary and Secondary Education 112 - iv - 4.3.2 Schools in New South Wales 112 4.3.3 Government Schools Student Categories in NSW 113 4.3.4 Teaching of LOTEs in NSW Primary Government Schools 114 4.3.5 Teaching of LOTEs in NSW Secondary Government Schools 115 4.3.6 Gender Distribution in NSW Government Secondary Schools 117 4.3.7 Language Choices 119 4.3.7.1 Correlations Between LOTEs Offered and NESB Enrolments 120 4.3.7.2 NALSAS Languages 121 4.3.8 NSW Saturday Schools 122 4.4 Analysis of Published Statistics – Victoria 123 4.4.1 Multicultural Education as a Philosophy 124 4.4.2 Financial Incentives and Support 126 4.4.3 Teaching of LOTEs in Primary Government Schools in Victoria 126 4.4.4 Teaching of LOTEs in Secondary Government Schools in Victoria 128 4.4.5 Future Strategies 131 4.5 Less Populous States in Australia 132 4.5.1 Queensland 132 4.5.2 Western Australia 132 4.5.3 South Australia 134 4.5.4 Tasmania 134 4.6 An Insider Impression of Language Teaching in Australia 135 4.7 The Desire for Scottish Gaelic in Schools 136 4.8 Adult Education and Language Learning in NSW 140 4.8.1 WEA Sydney 140 4.8.2 Centre for Continuing Education, Sydney University 141 4.8.3 Overview of Tertiary Language Education in Australia 144 4.9 Summary of LOTE Teaching in Australia 145 4.9.1 Gender as a Factor 145 4.9.2 Making Distinctions According to Ethnicity 145 4.9.3 Rural/ Urban and Conservative/ Progressive 146 4.9.4 English - First Among Equals 147 4.9.5 Internal Versus External 148 4.9.6 State Versus Federal Priorities 149 4.9.7 Differing Priorities for Different Groups 150 Chapter 5 Scottish Gaelic, Language Learning, Public Presence 152 5.1 That Scottish Gaelic is Difficult 152 5.1.1 Difficulty in the Public Domain 153 5.1.2 Linguistic Difficulties 154 5.1.3 Confidence in Ability of SoSGA Respondents 157 5.2 Structured Learning 161 5.2.1 Classroom Learning 161 - v - 5.2.2 Informal Learning 163 5.2.3 Special Events 164 5.2.3.1 Gaelic Weekends and Gaelic Days 164 5.2.3.2 Gaelic Days as Support for Other Groups 165 5.3 Learning in a Choir 168 5.3.1 The Use of Recordings 170 5.3.2 Language and Song 170 5.3.3 Enough to Sing With 172 5.4 Scottish Gaelic Radio Broadcasting 173 5.4.1 Some Background to SBS Broadcasting in Australia 173 5.4.2 Starting Scottish Gaelic Broadcasts on SBS 175 5.4.3 Inherent Contradictions? 177 5.4.4 Dealing With the Organisation 177 5.4.5 Recent Programme Content 178 5.4.6 Interviews and Native Speakers 181 5.4.7 Threats of Closure 183 5.4.8 SBS Cuts Four Languages 184 5.4.9 Local Radio Stations 186 5.4.9.1 Community Broadcasting in a Regional City 187 5.4.9.2 Community Broadcasting in a Regional Town 190 5.5 Monuments 191 5.5.1 The Mosman Cairn 191 5.5.1.1 The Mosman Cairn Inscription 192 5.5.2 Glen Innes Standing Stones 195 5.6 Conclusion 197 5.6.1 Institutionalisation 197 5.6.2 Subversion and Ethnicity 198 5.6.3 Visibility and Audibility 199 5.6.4 The Awkwardness of Scottish Gaelic Within Multiculturalism 200 5.6.5 Authenticity 201 Chapter 6 Scottish Gaelic, Ethnicity and Belonging 202 6.0 Introduction 202 6.1 Belonging and Celtic Ethnic Kinship 203 6.1.1 Use of the Term ‘Celtic’ 204 6.1.2 Varying Motivations and Outsiders 204 6.1.3 Subsequent Generations 206 6.1.4 A Legacy to Bequeath 207 6.2 Personal Identity and Language 208 6.2.1 Names, Ethnicity and Belonging 209 6.3 Scotland as a Locus for Action 211 6.4 Acceptance and Rejection in Scotland 213 - vi - 6.4.1 Being Welcomed 214 6.4.2 Participation in Uniqueness 214 6.4.3 Boundary Marking 215 6.4.4 Rejection, Criticism and Gender 216 6.5 Concerns for Authenticity 219 6.5.1 Linguistic Authenticity 219 6.5.2 The Importance of Native Speakers 220 6.6 Non-Linguistic Authenticity 223 6.6.1 Religious and Cognitive Authenticity 224 6.7 The Rejection of the Inauthentic 227 6.7.1 Authenticity and Reality 227 6.7.2 Disinterestedness 228 6.7.3 The Contestation of Dialects 229 6.7.4 Respect and Appreciation 231 6.8 Conclusions 233 6.8.1 Contested Authenticity 233 6.8.2 Non-Native Speakers and Native Speakers 233 6.8.3 Ethnicity as a Defining Feature in Australia 234 6.8.4 Linguistic Caging and Institutionalisation 235 Chapter 7 Political Context, Immigration and Multiculturalism 236 7.0 Introduction 236 7.0.1 Anglo-Celtic Heritage 236 7.0.2 Multiculturalism and Immigration 236 7.1 Immigration and Australia 237 7.1.1 The Importance of Immigration 237 7.1.2 Overview and Historical Background of Migration to Australia 237 7.1.3 Pre-Twentieth Century Migration 238 7.1.4 Early Twentieth Century Migration to Australia 240 7.1.5 Post-Second World War Migration 241 7.1.6