NUVUK POINT BARROW, ALASKA: THE THULE CEMETERY AND IPIUTAK OCCUPATION BY ANNE M. JENSEN MAY, 2009 SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF BRYN MAWR COLLEGE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY ABSTRACT This study presents a revised cultural chronology for the Nuvuk site, Point Barrow, Alaska. It is based on results of 10 years of work at the site, including the Nuvuk Archaeology Project. First, the history and results of prior ethnographic and archaeological research on the North Slope are reviewed, with an emphasis on material pertaining to coastal North Alaska. Nuvuk is set in environmental context, and the results of geomorphological research associated with this project are presented. Secondly, the findings of the pre-contact portion of the excavations are described. Notable results of this work include a previously unsuspected Ipiutak occupation, and a previously undocumented Thule occupation with an associated large cemetery. In addition, brief descriptions of various midden and activity areas resulting from the post-contact occupation of the site are provided. The detailed results of the 63 Thule burial excavations conducted to date are presented as an appendix. Finally, the implications of the presence of Ipiutak and Thule at the Nuvuk site for the chronology of the site itself, as well as the broader chronologies of the Barrow area and the North Slope are detailed. The implications of this revised chronology for interpretation of Ipiutak and for the question of Thule origins are discussed. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS As in the case with any project of considerable size and duration, the number of people who have been of assistance to me in the completion of this dissertation is legion. I like to express my gratitude to them all. Most importantly, this work could not been completed without the support and tolerance of my husband, Glenn W. Sheehan, and my daughter Justine A. Sheehan. I thank them for it. Secondly, I would like to thank my current advisor Richard S. Davis, and my former advisers, Ralph Solecki and the late Richard H. Jordan. Dick Jordan first introduced me to Arctic archaeology at Bryn Mawr College in an Anthropology 101 class I took to fulfill a distributional requirement. As a result, I changed my major from biology to anthropology, and my life took a major turn. Thirdly, I would like to thank the many participants in the excavations at Nuvuk, particularly the Nuvuk Archaeology Project. Many thanks go to Dennis O'Rourke, and his students Shawn Miller and Justin Tackney, for being willing to conduct physical anthropological studies in the field, thus permitting the burials to be excavated and properly documented prior to reburial without leaving Barrow, according to the wishes of the community. I would also like to thank Claire Alix for her invaluable contributions to the study of the massive wood assemblage from Nuvuk. Owen Mason has made great strides in elucidating the geomorphology of Nuvuk, which has been most helpful in ii understanding the site and its occupational history. In addition, he is a recent addition to my committee and has provided many helpful comments in this dissertation. My gratitude goes to Susan Lebo for her contributions to the historic archaeology and her work developing the historic context of post- contact Nuvuk. Laura Thomas has served as field and laboratory supervisor for the past four years. David Putnam worked with us in the early years, and produced the original hand-drawn site map. All the field crew members who have excavated at Nuvuk over the years have my thanks. None of this would have been possible without their efforts, often in very inclement weather. Special thanks go to Daniel Lum, for his great support with his van over the years and for the pop for the field crews. Fourth, I would like to thank the people of Barrow, including the management of the Ukpeagvik Iñupiat Corporation (UIC), who are the landowners of the Nuvuk site and have been my employers for much of this time. Particular thanks go to Bart Ahsogeak, UIC Real Estate director for support and advice, the UIC Real Estate Maintenance staff for coffin building and grave digging, Walter Brower at UIC Science for practical assistance and problem-solving skills, Chris Stein of LCMF for setting the monuments, the Alaskan Arctic Adventure staff for support with the tour vans and my administrative assistants, Linda Fishel and Tammy Hopson, for holding down the fort while I was in the field. The BASC logistics staff has provided exceptional field support and thanks are due to all of them, especially the bear guards. Many thanks go to the Iñupiat History Language and Culture iii Commission members and staff, including Jana Harcharek, Kathy Ahgeak, Dorcas Stein, Beverly Hugo, Elsie Itta, Fanny Akpik and Chris Savok. I would also like to thank the many colleagues who have provided information, discussion, encouragement and (generally) constructive criticism over the years, including: H.C. Gulløv, Bjarne Grønnow, Hans Kapel, Jens Rosing, Jeppe Møhl, Ulrik Møhl, Morton Meldgaard, Christian Vibe, Tom McGovern, Susan Kaplan, Susan Rowley, the late Allen McCartney, Herb Maschner, Ben Fitzhugh, Bill Fitzhugh, Steve Loring, David Morrison, Bob McGhee, Max Friesen, Chris Darwent, and Matt Betts. Thanks are also due my other family members for their support and encouragement, including my mother Marjorie Jensen and my father, the late Troels Jensen. I would also like to thank my late aunts Kirsten Jensen and Else Jensen and my late uncle Erik Jensen for their support and encouragement, particularly while I was studying in Denmark. Finally, I would like to thank and acknowledge three senior scholars who provided inspiration, encouragement and support to me when I was a young graduate student: the late Helge Larsen, the late Jørgen Meldgaard, and the late Frederica deLaguna. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT .............................................................................................................. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ........................................................................................... ii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................ix LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................... xii Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................ 1 Data Collection .................................................................................................. 3 Thesis Organization .......................................................................................... 7 Chapter 2: Review of literature & previous research ......................................... 10 Early Exploration and Whaling in North Alaska ............................................... 10 North Alaskan Ethnography ............................................................................ 12 North Alaskan Archaeology............................................................................. 16 Thule and other Neoeskimo ............................................................................ 31 Ipiutak ............................................................................................................. 33 Neoeskimo Mortuary Archaeology and Ethnography ...................................... 36 Theoretical Orientation .................................................................................... 59 Issues in Harpoon Head Typology .................................................................. 62 Chapter 3: Coastal North Alaskan Culture History ............................................. 64 Paleo-Eskimo in Coastal North Alaska ........................................................... 64 The Development and Evolution of Thule Culture in North Alaska ................. 67 The historical versions ................................................................................. 67 Consensus-more or less.............................................................................. 70 The consensus unfortunately appears to be wrong ..................................... 74 Ways to Address Those Problems .................................................................. 78 Chapter 4: Nuvuk ............................................................................................... 81 Description & Environmental Context ............................................................. 81 Setting ......................................................................................................... 81 Geology ....................................................................................................... 84 Climate ........................................................................................................ 90 Resources ................................................................................................... 93 Chapter 5: Archaeological Data From Nuvuk .................................................. 109 Archaeological data ...................................................................................... 109 Field Methods ............................................................................................... 110 v Descriptions of Burials and Features ............................................................ 121 Burials ....................................................................................................... 121 Driftwood