“This outstanding book is the introduction to happiness many of us have been waiting for: Clear and accessible, engaging, and remarkably comprehensive. It covers not just the philosophy of happiness but also the science, economics, and policy side of happiness, as well as practical issues about how to be happier, and includes non-Western approaches as well. It is the single best overview of research on happiness, and I strongly recommend it both for the classroom and for researchers wanting to learn more about the field, as well as anyone wishing to understand the state of the art in thinking about happiness.” Daniel M. Haybron, Saint Louis University “An engaging and wide-ranging introduction to the study of happiness. The book’s perspective is philosophical, and it would be an excellent choice for philosophy courses in ethics or happiness itself. The philosophy here is enriched by well-informed discussions of research in psychology, neuroscience, and economics, which makes it a very fine choice for courses in any field where there is an interest in a philosopher’s take on happiness. Indeed, anyone with an interest in happiness—whether or not they are teaching or taking a course—would profit from reading this book. Highly recommended!” Valerie Tiberius, University of Minnesota THE PHILOSOPHY OF HAPPINESS Emerging research on the subject of happiness—in psychology, economics, and public policy—reawakens and breathes new life into long-standing philosophi- cal questions about happiness (e.g., What is it? Can it really be measured or pursued? What is its relationship to morality?). By analyzing this research from a philosophical perspective, Lorraine L. Besser is able to weave together the contributions of other disciplines, and the result is a robust, deeply contoured understanding of happiness made accessible for nonspecialists. This book is the first to thoroughly investigate the fundamental theoretical issues at play in all the major contemporary debates about happiness, and it stands out especially in its critical analysis of empirical research. The book’s coverage of the material is comprehensive without being overwhelming. Its structure and pedagogical features will benefit students or anyone studying happiness for the first time: Each chapter opens with an initial overview and ends with a summary and list of suggested readings. Lorraine L. Besser is Professor of Philosophy at Middlebury College. She has published widely on moral psychology, well-being, and virtue ethics, and is the author of Eudaimonic Ethics: The Philosophy and Psychology of Living Well (2014) and coeditor of The Routledge Companion to Virtue Ethics (2015). THE PHILOSOPHY OF HAPPINESS An Interdisciplinary Introduction Lorraine L. Besser First published 2021 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Taylor & Francis The right of Lorraine L. Besser to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data A catalog record for this title has been requested ISBN: 978-1-138-24044-5 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-24045-2 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-28369-2 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by KnowledgeWorks Global Ltd. CONTENTS Preface xi Introduction 1 1 Introduction: The History of Happiness 3 Ancient Greek Philosophy 4 Modern British Philosophy 7 Asian Philosophy 9 Conclusion, Overview of the Book, End Notes and References 11 PART I Theory 15 2 Happiness and Well-Being 17 Eudaimonism: Philosophical and Psychological 17 Objective List Theories 19 Desire-Fulfillment Theories 21 Hedonism 23 Well-Being versus Happiness 23 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 25 3 Hedonism 29 What Is Hedonism? 30 Classical Hedonism 30 Attitudinal Hedonism 35 The Experience Requirement 39 viii Contents The Empirical Study of Hedonism 41 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 43 4 Emotional State Theory of Happiness 47 An Overall Emotional Condition 48 The Content of a Happy Emotional State 50 Is This Happiness? 52 Happiness and Well-Being, Again 54 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 55 5 Happiness as Satisfaction 58 Desire Fulfillment 58 The Relationship between Desire Fulfillment and Happiness 60 Life Satisfaction 62 Challenges for Life Satisfaction Theories 63 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 68 PART II What Makes Us Happy? 71 6 Happiness and Material Wealth 73 When Is Wealth Important and Why? 74 Adaptation and Expectations 77 The Limits of External Sources of Happiness 79 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 82 7 Happiness and Virtue 86 Eudaimonia 87 Does Being Virtuous Feel Good? 90 Virtue: An Intrinsic Aspiration 92 Virtue and Relationships 94 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 96 Contents ix 8 Relationships and Happiness 100 Why Relationships Matter 101 Community 102 Friendships 104 Romantic Relationships 107 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 109 9 The Mindset of Happiness 115 Religiosity and Spirituality 115 Mindfulness 118 Compassion 120 Gratitude 122 Optimism 124 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 125 10 Authenticity and Deception 130 The Experience Machine and the Deceived Businessman 131 Why Authenticity Might Matter 133 Why (and When) Authenticity Might Not Matter 136 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 139 11 The Pursuit of Happiness 142 The Paradox of Happiness 144 Adaptation and the Set-Point Theory 146 The Limits of Adaptation 148 Happiness Interventions 150 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 152 PART III The Context of Happiness 157 12 The Science of Happiness 159 The Positive Psychology Movement 159 Self-Report Scales 163 Measuring Affect 168 x Contents Objective Indicators of Happiness 170 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 170 13 Economics and Happiness 175 Neoclassical Economics 176 Empirical Trends 178 New Directions for the Economics of Happiness 182 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 184 14 Happiness and Public Policy 189 Classical Utilitarianism 190 Libertarian Paternalism 192 Promoting Happiness through Public Policy 196 Bhutan: A Short Case Study 201 Conclusion, Chapter Summary, End Notes, References and Suggested for Further Reading 203 Conclusion 209 15 A Brief Conclusion 211 Index 213 PREFACE In writing this interdisciplinary introduction to the philosophy of happiness, I’ve sought to explore happiness from almost every possible angle, all the while keeping the discussion accessible and focusing on the central themes, research, and theories that have come to define the study of happiness. My approach starts with philosophy and extends to other disciplines—including psychology, economics, neuroscience, and public policy—to deepen and enrich our overall understanding of happiness. This interdisciplinary approach reflects how happiness is presently studied. While researchers may have a home in one discipline (my home is philosophy), for the most part, we are all interested in the same thing: Understanding what happiness is, what we can learn about it and how, and what we can do with this information. Given this shared interest in a subject that crosses over so many different fields, academic work on happiness is, for the most part, inter- disciplinary. Psychologists are talking about Aristotle and Mill, philosophers are talking about biases and introspective capacities, neuroscientists are talking to Buddhist monks, economists are talking about psychological research on behav- ior, and policy makers are talking about the philosophical positions of pater- nalism. Interdisciplinary research teams are becoming increasingly common as these conversations evolve. The interdisciplinary nature of this book follows these conversations and tracks the implications they have for the overall study of happiness. Within this book, I examine the central developments happening within these conversations and the research and theories they have given rise to. By analyzing how it is that the particular contributions of each field or line of research informs the contributions of others, we can begin to develop a greater understanding of the whole of happiness. During the time I’ve been working on this book, my running joke has been about how writing a book on happiness is a surefire way to become unhappy. This is really only partly true. One thing we’ll learn about happiness is that there is a difference between feeling happy