ODCCP Studies on Drugs and Crime MONOGRAPHS THE DRUG NEXUS IN AFRICA Publications under the ODCCP Studies on Drugs and Crime Series may be the work of one or more staff members or organizational units of ODCCP, or the result of joint efforts involving ODCCP and other United Nations entities. ODCCP may also commission contributions from independent experts. Whenever appropriate, authorship is identified. The ODCCP Studies on Drugs and Crime incorporates the United Nations Crime Prevention and Criminal Justice Newsletter and the three categories of publications previously printed under the UNDCP Technical Series (Monographs, Statistical Summaries and Analyses, and Manuals and Guidelines). The present document represents issue # 1 in the Monograph series. The views expressed in the publications do not necessarily reflect the official policy of the Secretariat of the United Nations or the United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention. Material published in the ODCCP Studies on Drugs and Crime is the property of the United Nations and enjoys copyright protection, in accordance with the provision of the Universal Copyright Convention Protocol 2, concerning the application of that convention to the works of certain international organizations. Request for permission to reprint signed material should be addressed to the secretary of the Publications Board, United Nations, New York, N.Y. 10017, United States of America. © Copyright United Nations, 1999 - All rights reserved - Printed in Austria THE DRUGNEXUS INAFRICA March1999 Vienna ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The preparation of the report would not have been possible SOUTH AFRICA without the support and valuable contributions of a large number of individuals and organizations. Human Sciences Research Council (HSRC) Coordinator: Dr.Lee Rocha-Silva NATIONALRESEARCH TEAMS: Ina De Neuilly-Rice Graeme Hendricks The national research teams were comprised of the Brenda Kuiters following individuals: Santha Naiker Michael O¢Donovan KENYA Craig Schwäbe Ina Stahmer Department of Psychiatry, University of Nairobi Christa van Zyl Coordinators: Professor David Ndetei, Dr. Dammas M. Gina Weir-Smith Kathuku Medical Research Council (MRC) Samuel O. Deiya Dr. Charles Parry Ngugi Gatere Faith Kamau ZIMBABWE Rachel N.Kang’ethe Caroline Karicho Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, University Pius A.Kigamwa of Zimbabwe Mary W. Kuria Coordinators: Prof. S.W.Acuda, Ms.Essie Machamire Alfonse Lymamu Hiteshi Maru T.Butau John M. Mburu Eddington Dzinotyiewei Michael Mkoji Mapfumo Musoni Victoria Mutiso Beatrice Ndlovu Henry N. Ngoitsi M.B. Sebit Peter Njagi Unity H.Zinyowera Ann Obondo Tobias O. Ondiek Alfred O. Onyango NIGERIA Caleb Othieno Centre forAfrican Settlement Studies and Develop- Ramwe Consultancy & Development Services ment (CASSAD) Coordinator: Dr.Halima A.Mwenesi Coordinator: Professor A.G. Onibokun Mary Amuyunzu M.L. Adelekan Rose Kariuki A.A. Adeyemi Kennedy Moindi B.Adeyemi Kariuki Ngumo I.Alade Nancy Njoroge S.O. Apantaku Terry Njerenga A.O. Atoyebi Naigha Odero I.Badejo Deusdetit Ojala Badejo Ibiyemi Dan Onyango A.B. Makanjuola Jacob Otieno R.J.E.Ndom 3 Acknowledgements CAMEROON Kafui Kwame E.H. Mends Ministry of Public Health, Yaoundé K.Ohene-Konadu Coordinator: Dr.Félicien Ntone-Enyme Jemimah Prempeh Gilbert Sam Pascal Awah Musah Fuseini Sanda Louis-Marie Badga M.A. Sossou Rebecca Turkson Y.Yangyuoru MOZAMBIQUE Universidade Eduardo Mondlane Centro de Estudos da INTERNATIONALRESEARCH TEAMS: Populaçao (C.E.P.) Coordinator: Professor Yussuf Adam University of London, School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) António Adriano Jorge Martinho Albino Social Change Team: Manuel Chuma David Anderson Paulo Covele Susan Beckerleg Tomás Isastro Henry Bernstein Paulo Simião Machava T.A.S. Bowyer-Bowers Joao Mangue Christopher Davis Lote Simione Maveia Axel Klein Ariel Quingue Nhancolo Gerhard Kosack Bertina Oliveira David Simons Sete Carlos Ouana José Ruivo Piquitai Economic Change Team: Carlos Creva Singano Degol Hailu Armando F.Tsandzana Rathin Roy John Weeks ETHIOPIA Observatoire Géopolitique des Drogue (OGD) Faculty of Medicine, Addis Ababa University Alain Labrousse Coordinator: Dr.Mesfin Kassaye Laurent Laniel Ghimja Fissehaye Special thanks are due to UNDCPstaff in Nigeria, Kenya, Dr.Hassen Taha Sheriffe Senegal and Côte d’Ivoire. The staff of the Operations Branch at UNDCP headquarters in Vienna played a central role in all organizational and logistical arrangements for GHANA this study. UNDPstaff in the above countries as well as in Cameroon, Ethiopia, Ghana, Mozambique, South Africa Department of Sociology, University of Ghana and Zimbabwe also provided crucial assistance in the Coordinator: Dr.K.A. Senah preparation and execution of field visits in November 1997 and February 1998. Josephine Abbey Shirley Acquah The UNDCPheadquarters team responsible for the S.Afranie coordination of this exercise included Mariam Sissoko, Margaret Ahiagbenyoh Dagmar Thomas, Kyung Won and Thomas Pietschmann as Quaye Alabi well as consultants Sebastien Trives, Linda Cotton and Thomas Annan Barbara Terhorst. Administrative and org a n i z a t i o n a l Nana Apt van Ham assistance was provided by Gunilla Thorselius, Helen Georgina Asare Robinson, Johny Thomas and Andrea Marzan-Tenorio. Bernad Bentil The team leader and managing editor for this exercise was Joyce Darkwah Douglas Keh, under the auspices of the UNDCPResearch Umaru Eliasu Section, headed by Sandeep Chawla. Adams Fadil-Rahmah John K.Kenyah Preparation of this study was made possible thanks to Tetteh Kisseh financial contributions from the Swedish International Zenabu Petula Kobatu Development Cooperation Agency (SIDA) and the Pearl Kodjovie Government of Italy. Seth Kumah Solomon Kwakye NOTE: This publication has not been formally edited. 4 FOREWORD It is often assumed that the illicit drug problem in sub-Saharan Africa is of minor concern. But there are two reasons to question that assumption. Firstly, we have an incomplete picture of the drug problem in Africa because data on illicit drug trends in the region have until now been relatively sparse. Secondly, there is reason for skepticism as recent economic, social and political instability throughout the continent has created needs that are clearly not being met by traditional societies or legal commercial markets. Rarely, if ever, has there been such a wide window of opportunity for the illicit drug trade. In view of the rapid pace of change in many African societies, UNDCP has prepared the present report to assess the present vulnerability of sub-Saharan Africa to illicit drug production, trafficking and consumption. The study is meant to serve three purposes. Firstly, it provides a stronger empirical basis on which UNDCPitself can develop and refine its policy and operational involvement in the region. Secondly, it serves as an information resource available to Governments. Thirdly– and most importantly– it advances the policy dialogue on the illicit drug problem by highlighting the fact that the drug problem is not a self-contained phenomenon in and of itself, but that illicit activity both originates in, and has an impact upon, the process of human development. The preparation of this report was coordinated by the UNDCPResearch Section. I would like to express my appreciation to the Governments of the ten countries included in this study for authorizing us to undertake this initiative, which involved extensive field visits. I would also like to thank the national research teams as well as the international experts from beyond the region, all of whom sacrificed much in order to meet the tight deadlines for this exercise. Gratitude is also due to the Governments of Sweden and Italy for their generous support to this initiative. Only with a greater awareness of the multidimensional nature of the illicit drug problem– only with a firm grasp of the drug nexus– can we realistically aspire to developing and carrying out the actions needed to prevent its further spread. Let there be no mistake: we have a unique opportunity– and a responsibility– to pre-empt the spread of the problem in sub-Saharan Africa. The involvement of development agencies, humanitarian aid organizations and others will make the difference between fulfilling this responsibility or watching the problem spiral beyond control. It is with this aim in mind that the following report should be read. Pino Arlacchi Under-Secretary-General Executive Director, United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention 5 6 CONTENTS OVERVIEW PAGE 11 I. INTRODUCTION PAGE 15 A. INTRODUCTION B. GOALS AND METHODOLOGY C. RESULTS AND LESSONS LEARNED II. ILLICIT DRUGS IN AFRICA PAGE 19 A. INTRODUCTION B. PREVALENT ILLICIT DRUGS 1. INDIGENOUS DRUGS 2. COCAINE AND HEROIN 3. SYNTHETIC DRUGS 4. OTHER DRUGS C. ILLICIT DRUG PRODUCTION 1. CANNABIS PRODUCTION 2. PSYCHOTROPIC SUBSTANCES 3. KHAT D. DRUG TRAFFICKING 1. CANNABIS DISTRIBUTION 2. INTERNATIONALTRAFFICKING 3. EASTAFRICA 4. WESTAFRICA 5. SOUTHERN AFRICA E. ILLICIT DRUG CONSUMPTION 1. EASTAFRICA 2. WESTAFRICA 3. SOUTHERN AFRICA F. CONCLUSION III. ECONOMIC CHANGE AND ILLICIT DRUGS IN AFRICA PAGE 47 A. INTRODUCTION 1. ILLICIT DRUGS IN AFRICA: THE INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT B. ECONOMIC INFLUENCES ON ILLICIT DRUG PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBUTION 1. RISK DIVERSIFICATION AND CANNABIS CULTIVATION 2. URBAN ECONOMIES AND ILLICIT DRUG DISTRIBUTION 7 Contents C. ILLICIT DRUG MARKETS IN SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA 1. RETAIL PRICE IMPLICATIONS 2. TRADE-OFFS D. SUPPLY REDUCTION 1. LAW ENFORCEMENT 2. DRUG CONTROLAND