The Witch is not a Witch: The Dynamics and Contestations of Witchcraft Accusations in Northern Ghana A Dissertation Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) in History of Religions/Religionswissenschaft. By Leo Igwe Bayreuth International Graduate School of African Studies (BIGSAS), University of Bayreuth, Germany Supervisor: Professor Dr. em. Ulrich Berner December 2016 Table of Contents Summary ................................................................................................................................... v Acknowledgement .................................................................................................................... x List of Figures ......................................................................................................................... xii List of Abbreviations ............................................................................................................... ix Chapter One: Introduction ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Statement of the Problem ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Context of the Problem ..................................................................................................... 3 1.3 Research Question ............................................................................................................ 7 1.4 Research Objective ........................................................................................................... 7 1.5 Scope of Study .................................................................................................................. 8 1.6 The Research Setting: The Dagbon Traditional Area ...................................................... 9 1.6.1 Social Organisation of the Dagomba Community ....................................................... 11 1.6.3 The Concept of Tim (Medicine) .................................................................................. 13 1.6.2 The Concept of Sotali (Witchcraft). ............................................................................ 17 1.7 Notes on Research Methodology and Data Collection Techniques ............................... 19 1.7.1 Fieldwork and Positionality ......................................................................................... 19 1.7.2 Observation .................................................................................................................. 22 1.7.3 Interviews .................................................................................................................... 24 1.7.4 Informal Conversation ................................................................................................. 25 1.7.5 Archival Research ........................................................................................................ 25 1.8 Clarification of Concepts: Accusation, Contestation and Agency ................................. 25 1.9 Structure of Dissertation ................................................................................................. 26 1.10 Concluding Notes ......................................................................................................... 27 Chapter Two: Key Debates on Witchcraft Beliefs and Accusation Processes .................. 28 2.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 28 2.2 Literature Review ........................................................................................................... 28 i 2.2.1 The Older Debate ......................................................................................................... 28 2.2.2 Contemporary Approaches .......................................................................................... 35 2.3 Ghana witchcraft Debate ................................................................................................ 44 2.3.1 Witchcraft in Northern Ghana ..................................................................................... 53 2.3.2 Witch Sanctuaries and Witchcraft Accusations ........................................................... 55 2.4 Conceptual Framework: Plural Forums and Their Use and Non Use ............................ 59 2.4.1 The Concept of Pluralism ............................................................................................ 59 2.4.2 The Concept of Forum Shopping ................................................................................ 63 2.4.3 The DBO Approach and Expected Advantages .......................................................... 65 2.4.4 Actors and Witchcraft Accusation Process ................................................................. 69 Chapter Three: Attributions of Remediable Witchcraft .................................................... 78 3.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 78 3.2 The Case of Neda ........................................................................................................... 78 3.3 The Case of Hilda ........................................................................................................... 90 3.4 The Case of Abibat ......................................................................................................... 97 3.5 The Case of Wahab ....................................................................................................... 107 3.6 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 116 3.6.1 Witchcraft Behaviour and Sickness ........................................................................... 116 3.6.2 Shopping for Remediation of Misfortune .................................................................. 117 3.6.3 Accusation and the Question of Justice ..................................................................... 117 3.6.4 Human Rights and Witchcraft Accusation ................................................................ 120 3.6.5 Chiefs, Remediation and Attributions of Witchcraft ................................................. 122 3.6.6 Education, Forum Use and Non Use ......................................................................... 123 3.6.7 Media Uptake and Response to Witchcraft Label ..................................................... 124 3.6.8 Civil Society Utilization and Contestation of Ascribed Guilt ................................... 125 3.6.9 Urbanness and Access to ‘Modern’ Forums.............................................................. 126 ii 3.7 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 126 Chapter Four: Imputations of Irremediable Witchcraft .................................................. 128 4.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 128 4.2 The Case of Ayishetu ................................................................................................... 128 4.3 The Case of Ese ............................................................................................................ 136 4.4 The Case of Dagat ........................................................................................................ 143 4.5 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 151 4.5.1 Causation and Death .................................................................................................. 151 4.5.2 Why Accuse Me? ....................................................................................................... 152 4.5.3 Legitimacy of Chiefs and Ascribed Responsibility for Death ................................... 153 4.5.4 Death, Accuser-catching and Accused-exonerating Shrines ..................................... 154 4.5.5 Gendered Response to Irremediable Witchcraft ........................................................ 154 4.6 Conclusion .................................................................................................................... 155 Chapter Five: Ascriptions of Anticipatory Witchcraft ..................................................... 157 5.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 157 5.2 The Case of Hawabu ..................................................................................................... 158 5.3 The Case of Wura ......................................................................................................... 169 5.4 Discussion ..................................................................................................................... 175 5.4.1 Challenging the Witchcraft Behaviour ...................................................................... 175 5.4.2 Ambivalence of Family and Occult Intent ................................................................ 176 5.4.3 Age and Occult Potency ............................................................................................ 176 5.4.4 Accused and the Ambiguous Role of Chiefs ............................................................