FIRST-LANGUAGE CHEROKEE SPEAKERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL EXPERIENCES By SAMANTHA SANDERS BENN-DUKE Bachelor of Arts in English Education Northeastern State University Tahlequah, OK 1991 Master of Arts in Administration Northeastern State University Tahlequah, OK 2002 Submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate College of the Oklahoma State University in partial fulfillment of provided by SHAREOK repository View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk CORE the requirements for brought to you by the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY December, 2016 FIRST-LANGUAGE CHEROKEE SPEAKERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL EXPERIENCES Dissertation Approved: Dr. Hongyu Wang Dissertation Adviser Dr. Pamela Brown Dr. Shanedra Nowell Dr. Mary Larson . ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS For the support and assistance I have received throughout the process of researching and writing, I owe thanks to many. First and foremost, without my four participants, there would be no project. I offer my heartfelt thanks to Gil, Shirley, Pauline, and John, from whom I’ve learned so much and have grown to appreciate more and more on this journey. I offer special thanks to Gil and to our mutual friend Dr. Trey Adcock, who always make time for me when I visit them in North Carolina and ensure that I get a work out from hiking and visiting waterfalls, and to Shirley, who always makes sure that I am well fed and treated like family. When I began this journey, I had no intention of it being as lengthy a process as it has become. Dr. Wang and Dr. Brown have been with me from the beginning, and I have greatly appreciated their guidance. Dr. Wang agreed to become my advisor after my previous one retired, and has spent countless hours encouraging and guiding me. After I had learned about oral history and considered making that my cognate area and later my dissertation methodology, Dr. Mary Larson became my steadfast ally, ensuring that I stayed on the right track while sharing her own stories and expertise with me, inspiring me to look more deeply. Dr. Shanedra Nowell, whom I had known as a classmate before she completed her doctorate, agreed to become a committee member after my previous advisor retired, thus completing my committee. I appreciate their unique contributions and perspectives and all that each has done to help me accomplish this project. iii Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. I convey gratitude to the Native researchers who have become before me, those who contributed to changes in perceptions to more positive ones, and those who catalogued the often difficult and painful stories of our ancestors. My friends at OSU, whom I have long referred to as my PhD buddies, have provided ongoing support without which I would not have finished this project. Thank you to Kelli Carney, Sherri Been, Valarie Farrow, LaKrisa Walker, and others who have been there for suggestions, as sounding boards, and for the occasional kick in the butt when needed. I also appreciate Oklahoma State University for providing me with a summer fellowship, assisting me so that I could make one last trip to North Carolina for data collection and allowing me time to focus on this project. While many other friends have been supportive, and I thank them, I would like to express my particular gratitude to Rita Bunch, who was my wonderful boss during much of the doctoral journey, and Sherry Holcomb, my friend upon whom I could always depend to answer any questions related to Cherokee language or tradition. My colleagues with whom I now work have also provided much-needed support and encouragement; I am fortunate to work with such amazing and dedicated educators. Although there are many more whom I should show appreciation, I conclude with my family. My husband, Brian, has been incredibly patient throughout this lengthy process, and my kids, Cassandra, Alysa, and Colton, did not give up on me. My mother expressed her pride and support for what I was doing. I love and appreciate them all, as iv Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. well as my many other family members, both via blood and via marriage, who have supported me throughout my educational odyssey. v Acknowledgements reflect the views of the author and are not endorsed by committee members or Oklahoma State University. Name: SAMANTHA SANDERS BENN-DUKE Date of Degree: DECEMBER, 2016 Title of Study: FIRST-LANGUAGE CHEROKEE SPEAKERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF SCHOOL EXPERIENCES Major Field: EDUCATION Abstract: In this dissertation I examine the perceptions of the experiences that first- language Cherokee speakers had of their school experiences, and of the higher education or career choices that they made beyond high school, in relation to their lack of English skills when they began school. While much research has been conducted on Native people who were sent to far-off boarding schools, a need to capture perceptions of those who attended English-speaking schools close to home was evident. This oral history methodology captures the stories and perceptions of four Cherokee speakers and examines their elementary school experiences in context with their careers and their progeny. Through lenses of transculturation theory and hermeneutic phenomenology, the essences of each are described and examined, challenging previous notions that Native children who succeed do so in spite of their cultural identity rather than because of it. Implications are determined for educators, administrators, and policy makers and how these perceptions of experiences can inform more culturally considerate teaching and school experiences for Native and other minority children. vi vii TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................1 Statement of the Problem .........................................................................................7 Purpose of the Study ..............................................................................................11 Research Question .................................................................................................12 Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................................12 Hermeneutic Phenomenology ............................................................................13 Transculturation Theory .....................................................................................15 Methodology ..........................................................................................................17 Positionality ...........................................................................................................19 Limitations of the Study.........................................................................................21 Significance of the Study .......................................................................................22 Definition of Terms................................................................................................23 II. REVIEW OF LITERATURE..................................................................................26 Overview of Education of Native Children ...........................................................28 U.S. Government Act and Treaty Impacting Indian Education .........................29 The Boarding School Era ...................................................................................33 Boarding School Conditions and Curriculum ....................................................35 A Shift to More Localized Boarding Schools ....................................................38 Education of Cherokee Children ............................................................................40 Formal Education of Cherokee Children ...........................................................44 Cherokee National Males and Female Seminaries ............................................47 North Carolina Cherokees..................................................................................49 Native Perceptions of Education ............................................................................51 Education of Native Students Today .....................................................................55 III. METHODOLOGY ................................................................................................59 Theoretical Framework ..........................................................................................60 Hermeneutic Phenomenology ............................................................................61 Transculturation Theory .....................................................................................64 Qualitative Methodology .......................................................................................67 Participant Selection ..............................................................................................73 viii Participants .............................................................................................................75 Data Collection ......................................................................................................76 Data Analysis .........................................................................................................79 Permissions ............................................................................................................81