Repositorium für die Medienwissenschaft Florian Hoof Liveness Formats: A Historical Perspective on Live Sports Broadcasting 2019 https://doi.org/10.25969/mediarep/13671 Veröffentlichungsversion / published version Sammelbandbeitrag / collection article Empfohlene Zitierung / Suggested Citation: Hoof, Florian: Liveness Formats: A Historical Perspective on Live Sports Broadcasting. In: Marek Jancovic, Axel Volmar, Alexandra Schneider (Hg.): Format Matters. Standards, Practices, and Politics in Media Cultures. Lüneburg: meson press 2019, S. 81–103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.25969/mediarep/13671. Nutzungsbedingungen: Terms of use: Dieser Text wird unter einer Creative Commons - This document is made available under a creative commons - Namensnennung - Weitergabe unter gleichen Bedingungen 4.0/ Attribution - Share Alike 4.0/ License. For more information see: Lizenz zur Verfügung gestellt. Nähere Auskünfte zu dieser Lizenz https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ finden Sie hier: https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/ [4] Liveness Formats: A Historical Perspective on Live Sports Broadcasting Florian Hoof No Radio, No Home TV In­2015,­the­English­Premiere­League­sold­its­television­broadcasting­rights­ for­the­next­three­seasons­to­the­pay-TV­company­Sky and­the­telecom- munications­company­BT­Group for­$8­billion.­This­record-breaking­deal­ is­only­a­recent­reminder­that­sports,­as­an­intrinsic­part­of­Western­ modernity,­have­always­been­deeply­intertwined­with­film­and­media­his- tory­on­a­global­scale.­In­particular,­live­sports­have­been­a­driving­force­in­ developing,­standardizing,­and­stabilizing­pay­TV­practices­and­technology­ for­delivering­and­securing­live­broadcasting­events­(Sies,­2008).­An­early­ advertising­slogan­for­pay-per-view­boxing­fights,­“No­Radio,­No­Home­TV,”­ sums­up­the­vital­purpose—to­restrict­access­to­live­sports­broadcasts—of­ such­attempts:­It­includes­transmission­and­projection­technologies­that­ have­the­capacity­to­grant­access­to­the­live­broadcasting­signal­for­people­ who­have­paid­for­the­event­and­at­the­same­time­deny­access­to­anyone­ else.­My­case­study­investigates­the­media­history­of­strategies­of­for- tification­and­control­in­the­context­of­pay­TV­for­live­sports.­A­business­ model­that­depends­on­controlling­the­circulation­of­moving­images­by­ either­restricting­access­to­the­broadcasting­signal­or­controlling­the­infra- structure­needed­to­circulate­the­broadcasting­signal. In­recent­decades,­there­have­been­decisive­shifts­in­critical­under- standings­of­circulation­in­the­emerging­global­cultural­economy.­Such­ cultural­flows­and­transactions­have­been­explained­more­broadly­by­ an­interplay­between­ideologies,­cultures,­technologies,­and­economies­ 82 Format Matters (Appadurai­1990).­The­boundary-expanding­dynamics­unleashed­by­media­ convergence­and­digital-network­markets­have­been­described­as­the­ dissemination­of­moving­images­and­information­goods­beyond­existing­ media­dispositifs­(e.g.,­Jenkins­2006).­How­this­affects­media­circulation­ was­researched­by­focusing­on­media­infrastructures­that­would­enable­ and­restrict­the­circulation­of­moving­images­(Parks­and­Starosielski­2015;­ Starosielski­2015;­Schabacher­2013).­Those­perspectives­have­recently­been­ accompanied­by­approaches­that­are­more­cautious­about­associating­such­ boundary-expanding­capacities­with­digital­media.­Instead,­they­focus­on­ technologies­and­politics­of­control­to­understand­decentralized­media­net- works­(Galloway­2006;­O’Neil­2016).­ These­are­different­lenses­for­looking­at­media­culture,­but­they­also­hint­ at­a­methodological­challenge­for­film­and­media­studies.­Media­con- vergence,­the­digitization­of­film­and­media­culture,­and­the­advent­of­ media­ecosystems­make­it­increasingly­difficult­to­distinguish­between­ single­media­dispositifs­and­media­networks.­Even­entities­such­as­“film”­ and­“television”­seem­no­longer­to­be­stable­(Wasson­2015;­Sterne­2012).­ Streaming­container­formats,­such­as­MPEG­and­QuickTime,­show­that­the­ boundaries­between­media­that­store­moving­images­(celluloid­film,­DVD),­ the­infrastructures­that­distribute­them­(postal­system,­video­store),­and­ the­media­dispositifs­that­exhibit­them­(cinema,­television)­have­become­ almost­irrelevant.­As­Jonathan­Sterne­explains,­streaming­container­ formats­that­encapsulate­media­technologies­and­aesthetics­“carry­the­ traces­of­other­infrastructures”­(2012,­2).­What­then­comes­to­the­center­of­ attention­are­“architectures­of­control”­(Lessig­2006)­embedded­in­media­ standards,­containers,­and­data­formats­that­structure­the­circulation­of­ moving­images.­I­specifically­look­at­strategies­of­control­that­emerge­out­ of­economic­necessities­to­standardize­and­control­the­distribution­and­ logistics­of­goods­(Rossiter­2016),­and­how­these­concepts­and­architectures­ become­“sources­of­order­in­underorganized­systems”­(Weick­1985,­106).­ From­this­angle,­I­look­at­the­history­of­sports­broadcasting­as­“a­series­of­ small­crises­of­cultural­control”­(Hilmes­1997,­xiii)­that­arise­when­economic­ interests­temporarily­fail­to­control­the­circulation­of­their­product.­Looking­ at­the­materiality­of­historically­emerging­forms­of­cultural­control­offers­a­ more­precise­perspective­“than­the­concept­of­an­ahistorical,­unchanging,­ and­thus­rather­expansive,­concept­of­a­medium”­(Wasson­2015,­58).­To­ account­for­the­changing­politics­of­cultural­control­(Winner­1980;­Gillespie­ 2010;­Warnke­2013;­Vonderau­2014),­I­define­and­lay­out­two­concepts­of­ control.­The ­first,­“fortifying,”­tries­to­control­live­broadcasts­by­protecting­ the­medium­that­stores­the­signal;­the­second,­“infrastructuring,”­tries­ Liveness Formats 83 to­dominate­the­distribution­network­used­to­circulate­or­distribute­live­ broadcasts. Bifurcated Concept of Format Control: Fortifying–Infrastructuring Live­sports­broadcasting­is­a­specifically­suitable­example­to­look­at­shifting­ concepts­of­control.­Sports­events­are­extremely­valuable­resources­for­ content­providers.­But­because­a­program’s­economic­value­diminishes­ greatly­after­the­event­has­taken­place,­it­is­essential­for­rights­holders­to­ protect­and­secure­such­broadcasts.­By­definition,­the­practice­of­pay-TV­ live­broadcasting­is­a­compromise­between­easy­and­fast­circulation­of­live­ sports­events­and­the­protection­of­those­signals­from­illegal­duplication­ and­bootlegging.­The­priority­is­to­precisely­manage­and­control­access­to­ the­live­signal,­while­storing­the­event­for­later­distribution­or­providing­ for­the­“best”­possible­image­quality­are­subordinate­aspects.­Live­broad- casting­is­optimized­toward­immediate­circulation­and­is­thus­closely­linked­ to­distribution.­Therefore,­broadcasting­signals­rely­on­physical­infra- structure­that­is­embedded­into­social­arrangements­and­technologies,­ such­as­standardized­practices,­norms,­and­protocols.­This­is­not­unique­to­ media­infrastructure­but­the­basis­of­any­logistical­system.­As­Susan­Leigh­ Star­and­Karen­Ruhleder­explain,­such­“infrastructure­is­transparent­to­use,­ in­the­sense­that­it­does­not­have­to­eb ­reinvented­each­time­or­assem- bled­for­each­task,­but­invisibly­supports­those­tasks”­(1996,­113).­In­the­ case­of­media­infrastructures­this­specifically­concerns­the­interoperability­ between­media­event,­storage­or­broadcasting­medium,­and­projection­ device.­Interoperability­is­guaranteed­by­standardized­norms­that­cover­ these­requirements.­Media­formats­such­as­35mm­film,­Betamax,­or­MPEG­ incorporate­certain­standards­that­make­them­compatible­with­certain­film­ projectors­or­software­decoders.­This­facilitates­circulation­and­distribution­ of­audiovisual­signals­because­of­the­standardized­and­modularized­infra- structure­arrangements.­While­such­technological­standards­fulfill­basic­ technological­specifications,­they­seem­to­be­an­insufficient­explanation­to­ account­for­the­sociomaterial­aspects­of­media­culture.­Furthermore,­such­ an­explanation­downplays­the­role­of­culture­and­social­practices­that­sta- bilize­such­norms­and­standards.­To­open­a­broader­perspective­on­media­ distribution,­Sterne­suggests­the­need­for­a­more­comprehensive­definition­ of­the­term­“format”­to­account­for­the­question­of­interoperability.­He­ argues­that­formats­are­“attempt[s]­to­solve­the­problem­of­exchange- able­formats­across­segments­of­the­media­industry”­but­also­“artifact[s]­ 84 Format Matters shaped­by­several­practices”­(Sterne­2006,­826).­Using­this­basic­definition­ of­formats,­I­look­at­live­broadcasting­as­an­arrangement­of­formats­that­ guarantees­the­interoperability­of­technological­specifications,­such­as­ norms­and­standards,­with­the­cultural­and­economic­sphere.­Here,­inter- operability­is­particularly­important­because­live­broadcasting­formats­ depend­on­immediate­distribution­and­circulation,­making­them­loosely­ coupled­and­only­weakly­determined­structures.­As­piracy­has­always­been­ a­driving­force­for­media­history­(Johns­2009;­Dommann­2019)­this­open- ness­has­resulted­in­continuous­negotiations­between­the­industry,­the­ consumers,­and­the­state­about­format­control.­ To­better­understand­these­negotiations,­I­devise­a­bifurcated­concept­of­ control­that­includes­two­ideal­typical­strategies­of­format­control.­The­first­ branch­focuses­on­“fortifying”­and­securing­the­broadcasting­signal.­The­ second­branch­focuses­on­controlling­the­infrastructure­that­facilitates­ the­circulation­of­live­broadcasts.­I­understand­these­two­ideal­types­of­ control­as­a­“unified­analytical­construct”­that­“is­formed­by­the­one-sided­