View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by Érudit Article "The tip of the iceberg: Ice as a non-human actor in the climate change debate" Lill Rastad Bjørst Études/Inuit/Studies, vol. 34, n° 1, 2010, p. 133-150. Pour citer cet article, utiliser l'information suivante : URI: http://id.erudit.org/iderudit/045408ar DOI: 10.7202/045408ar Note : les règles d'écriture des références bibliographiques peuvent varier selon les différents domaines du savoir. Ce document est protégé par la loi sur le droit d'auteur. L'utilisation des services d'Érudit (y compris la reproduction) est assujettie à sa politique d'utilisation que vous pouvez consulter à l'URI https://apropos.erudit.org/fr/usagers/politique-dutilisation/ Érudit est un consortium interuniversitaire sans but lucratif composé de l'Université de Montréal, l'Université Laval et l'Université du Québec à Montréal. Il a pour mission la promotion et la valorisation de la recherche. Érudit offre des services d'édition numérique de documents scientifiques depuis 1998. Pour communiquer avec les responsables d'Érudit : [email protected] Document téléchargé le 14 février 2017 12:01 The tip of the iceberg: Ice as a non-human actor in the climate change debate Lill Rastad Bjørst* Résumé: La pointe de l’iceberg: la glace comme acteur non humain du débat sur le changement climatique L’Arctique est au coeur du débat global sur le changement climatique et la glace est devenue un aspect central des discours. Cet article discute des représentations de la glace à partir de six contextes différents liés au Congrès des Nations Unies sur le changement climatique de 2009 à Copenhague. Même si les discussions semblent souvent centrées sur la glace, l’auteure soutient que cette dernière s’inscrit dans des récits et métaphores qui ont de plus vastes implications sur la façon dont l’Arctique et ses peuples autochtones sont représentés. La glace devient un acteur non humain, encadrant les discussions, jouant des rôles spécifiques et liant des réseaux hybrides. En effet, elle est utilisée sur diverses plates-formes tant par des scientifiques, politiciens, gouvernements, ONG, que par des chasseurs et pêcheurs inuit. Abstract: The tip of the iceberg: Ice as a non-human actor in the climate change debate The global climate change debate has the Arctic as a core region of concern and ice has become a central aspect of discourses. This article discusses ice representations from six different contexts linked to the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference (COP15) in Copenhagen. The author argues that even though the discussions often seem to be centred on ice alone, the latter enters into narratives and metaphors that have wider implications for how the Arctic and its Indigenous peoples are represented. Ice becomes a non-human actor, framing the discussions, acting in specific ways, and linking hybrid networks. Indeed it is used in diverse platforms by scientists, politicians, governments, and NGOs, as well as by Inuit hunters and fishers. * Department of Cross-Cultural and Regional Studies, University of Copenhagen, Strandgade 102, DK – 1404 Copenhagen K, Denmark. [email protected] ÉTUDES/INUIT/STUDIES, 2010, 34(1): 133-150 Introduction For centuries, the Arctic regions have been created and invented. People living outside the Arctic have been fascinated by, as well as deterred from, this “exotic” place. For the last 20 years, much has been written about this imagined North and the importance of being critical of dominant discourses about it (e.g., Bjørst 2008; Bravo 2002; Fienup-Riordan 1990; Thisted 2002). While constructing and interlinking natural and social worlds, people make references to imaginary places, metaphors, and symbols (Blok 2010; Latour 1993). Yet it is harder to grasp hybrid phenomena like “climate.” A likely reason is the relatively recent “purification” of nature and culture, dating to the beginning of the Enlightenment when Western philosophy polarised their entities and roles (Latour 2002: 107). This world view, however, has never been valid, as Latour (2007) argues, since humans and non-humans are equally actors. Hence, “history is no longer simply the history of people, it becomes the history of natural things as well” (Latour 2002: 82). In the international climate debate, various actors are taking positions. Inuit are one among the many human actors but there are also non-human ones: polar bears, mountains, glaciers, etc.1 In the case of Greenland, the iceberg represents more than its visual image, and ice frames Arctic discourses on climate change in many ways. Most people are fascinated by ice and use strong metaphors like “the tip of the iceberg” or “on thin ice,” that have been reappropriated for the climate debate. Using warm/cold dichotomies, the media talk about “the melting future” and state that agendas are “frozen out” or that politicians are “in a frozen position.” During the 2009 United Nations Climate Change Conference (also known as COP152) held in Copenhagen, all sorts of meanings and representations were attached to ice. Even Naalakkersuisut (Greenland Self-Government) used this metaphor for its own parallel event, “In the Eye of Climate Change,” by commissioning a piece of artwork called “The tip of the iceberg” (Figure 1). It was an enormous photo of an iceberg enwrapping the front of the Iceland embassy building and the Greenland and Faeroe Islands offices in downtown Copenhagen. In the press releases, the work of art was interpreted in the following way: “Symbolizing the fact that the climatic changes in the Arctic region are only the tip of the iceberg, this grand installation designed by Greenlandic artist Inuk Silis Høegh rises on the harbour front and gives a spectacular reminder of the beauty of the Arctic and the Earth's fragility” (Climate Greenland 2009; Hansen 2009). How is the ice metaphor affecting the Arctic climate debate? By way of an answer, I have examined narratives about ice as a non-human actor in various forms (e.g., sea ice, land ice, icebergs, the Greenland ice sheet, etc.). The narratives were gathered from July 2009 to December 2009 as part of my doctoral research. The fieldwork involved 22 interviews and observations in Ilulissat (Greenland) and in Copenhagen during 1 Latour defines “actor” as something that acts, but does not have to be human. An “actant” can literally be anything as long as it has the ability to act (Latour 2006: 214). 2 COP15 is the acronym for “15th Conference of the Parties.” 134/L.R. BJØRST COP15 activities.3 For analysis and discussion, I used a multi-sited ethnographic approach (see Marcus 1995). I was also inspired by the work of Latour, one of the founding fathers of Actor-Network-Theory, since ice is acting and taking strong positions in the climate change debate. According to Latour (2007: 46), to use the word ”actor” means that it is never clear who or what is acting since an actor on stage is never alone in acting. The same holds for ice; it is given different voices by different people. Indeed, discourses on ice are characterised by co-existence of several infra- languages4 that allow it to move, gradually transform, and adapt to new contexts and settings (cf. Gad and Jensen 2010: 63; Latour 2007). The ice of science In preparation for the December 2009 COP15, March 10-12 2009, the International Alliance of Research Universities (IARU) hosted an international congress in Copenhagen, “Climate Change: Global Risks, Challenges and Decisions.” More than 2,000 scholars, researchers, and business people participated. The program was overwhelming with many sciences represented, and it was a challenge to navigate through the 58 sessions to find relevant presentations about other things than purely natural science. Each conference day started with an opening session presenting some of the most prominent climate experts, NGO representatives, and politicians. All the sessions took place in the biggest conference room, which had the congress logo in the background to the front stage—a piece of scenery shaped like an iceberg. On the first day, participants were welcomed by a screen showing pictures from the Ilulissat Icefjord and glacier. It was a dramatic setting. The glacier is one of the fastest moving ones, producing more than 10% of the total discharge from the Greenland ice sheet (Rosing 2009: 84). In the congress program, Katherine Richardson (2009: 4), the Chair of the Scientific Steering Committee and Vice Dean at the Faculty of Science at the University of Copenhagen, greeted the participants with these words: “Climate change presents probably the greatest challenge that our society has ever faced and knowledge is the strongest weapon we have at hand to face these challenges. Knowledge is created through research.” One of the congress topics was the “two-degree target,” i.e., keeping the global mean temperature from rising more than 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels. It again received attention during the closing session, which featured a debate among six leading climate experts and Anders Fogh Rasmussen (Figure 2), the then Prime Minister of Denmark and upcoming host of COP15. Rasmussen asked the scientists on the panel: 3 In this article, quotes without references are from my field notes (Bjørst 2009). 4 Infra-languages are the vocabulary of the actors, thus making it possible to move from one frame of reference to the next (Latour 2007: 30) THE TIP OF THE ICEBERG…/135 Figure 1. The installation “The tip of the iceberg” by Inuk Silis Høegh at the North Atlantic House, Copenhagen, December 2009. Photo: Nordatlantens Brygge. Figure 2. Prime Minister of Denmark Anders Fogh Rasmussen, closing session at the Climate Change Congress, Copenhagen, March 12, 2009.