AT THE COURT OF THE PRINCE: THE PATRONAGE AND ART HISTORICAL LEGACY OF CESARE BORGIA, 1492-1503 By ELIZABETH HILTON BEMIS A DISSERTATION PRESENTED TO THE GRADUATE SCHOOL OF THE UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 2015 © 2015 Elizabeth Bemis To my family and friends who made the journey worthwhile, to Jane who made it possible, and to Dr. Barletta who helped me believe that I could – I wish you had been here with me at the end. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS First and foremost I would like to thank my co-chairs Dr. Robert Westin and Dr. Elizabeth Ross for their guidance and assistance throughout this project. Dr. Westin thoughtfully agreed to stay the course despite his retirement during the early phase of research and I thank him for affording me and this work that continuity. Dr. Ross has worked with me since my master’s thesis; my scholarship carries a great debt to her perspectives and knowledge. Her counseling has been truly formative. This research was also enhanced by the other scholars on my committee, Dr. Barbara Barletta, Dr. Maya Stanfield-Mazzi, and Dr. Robert A. Hatch. A particularly warm thank you to Dr. Barletta who also served as my master’s thesis reader and who has, since I arrived at the University of Florida as a young graduate student, always been kind and supportive. Your continued and genuine care has been sustaining. Numerous libraries, archives, and historic sites have been utilized during the course of this dissertation and to all of them - this would not have been possible without you. To the staff at the University of Florida Libraries, thank you for all of your hard work, particularly Melanie Davis of the Interlibrary Loan office who went above and beyond, tirelessly working with me to track down rare and difficult sources. I am grateful to the Archives nationales for their permission to work with and photograph the inventory of Charlotte d’Albret, a critical document to my work. An especially heartfelt thank you to the family of Ivon Cloulas who graciously granted permission for me to view their private fond, also held there. To the Bibliothèque national, Forte Nettuno, Rocca Sforzesca, Archivio di Stato di Forlì-Cesena, access to your facilities and holdings was deeply appreciated. Individually, to Anna Rosa Bambi, director of the Archivio di Stato Forlì, who assisted me with the primary chronicles of the region, to John McNeill who corresponded with me in regards to the records of the British Archeological Association, to Dr. Linda Stone of the Centre for Reformation and Renaissance Studies at 4 Victoria University in the University of Toronto, who provided me with a copy of pages from Istoria di Bologna, to the staff of the Biblioteca Berenson at the Villa I Tatti, especially Patrizia Corella who made me feel welcome, to Pilar Martínez de Olcoz of the Office of Tourism and Culture in Viana, Spain, who guided me to the locations in the city associated with Cesare Borgia and his death, and to Marc du Pouget, Directeur des Archives départementales et du Patrimoine historique de l’Indre who corresponded with me regarding Charlotte d’Albret’s death certificate – thank you very much, merci beaucoup, muchas gracias, grazie mille. There are a few individuals whose assistance deserves a personal address. Paolo Errani, thank you for your warmth and for sharing the Biblioteca Malatestiana with me. To Nick Humphrey of the Victoria and Albert Museum, your willingness to arranging for me to see the sword scabbard of Cesare Borgia while in conservation has continued to influence my scholarship and career. To Caterina Fiorani at the Fondazione Camillo Caetani, thank you for the great honor of viewing Cesare’s sword and the memory of your shared enthusiasm. Valérie Découx and M. Alain Langlois, the wonderful experience of meeting the two of you in La Motte-Feuilly to discover the history of the château and chapel is treasured. Thank you to Giacomo Cicognani for the scholastic adventure at the Rocca Malatesta in Cesena. To Sergio Spada and Christina Vallicelli for the tour of the Rocca di Ravaldino in Forlì and their continued help discovering “Valentina”, I truly cannot thank you enough for your dedication, patience, and hospitality. Thank you to the University of Florida Graduate School, the James J. Rizzi Scholarship Fund, and the Grinter Fellowship Program for deeming me and this project to be a valuable investment. This research would of course have not been possible without the numerous grants and fellowships that funded my travel. All of the staff in the School of Art + Art History office 5 has played a great hand in keeping the momentum of this process going, a particular thank you to Patrick Grigsby who always brightened my day with his kindness. To my dear friend Jessica Uelsmann whose invaluable translations of some of the key French publications made the foundational work on Cesare’s sword possible, I am blessed to have known you for so long. Thank you to M. Heloise Seailles, your wonderful instruction in French helped me eventually find my own way. And to Ilaria Niccolini whose generous spirit compelled her to assist me in translating some of the difficult passages written in older or dialectic Italian, thank you. Dave, the incredible amout of time you spent helping me edit and re- edit this document has been a blessing. Your patience and understanding throughout this entire process has been humbling. Mandy, sharing this journey with you has been a joy—thank you for all of the quick glances, thorough readings, and laughter that helped me get through it. Finally to my family, words cannot express my gratitude for your tireless support. 6 TABLE OF CONTENTS page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...............................................................................................................4 ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................................9 1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................................11 Historical Literature on Cesare Borgia ...................................................................................17 Patronage ................................................................................................................................23 Self-fashioning and Presentation ............................................................................................25 Performance ............................................................................................................................29 Objects and Events Used in Performance ...............................................................................32 Splendor and Magnificence ....................................................................................................36 Ephemeral Events and Spectacle ............................................................................................38 2 EARLY LIFE AND INFLUENCES ......................................................................................48 Early Education ......................................................................................................................52 Rome .......................................................................................................................................58 3 TRANSFORMATION ...........................................................................................................80 4 THE PRINCE .......................................................................................................................100 Return to Italy .......................................................................................................................100 Stay in Rome 1500................................................................................................................115 1500 Campaign in the Romagna...........................................................................................119 Cesare’s Use of the Hydra as a Personal Device ..................................................................121 Lucrezia’s Third Marriage – Alfonso d’Este ........................................................................129 Forte Sangallo .......................................................................................................................141 Forte Nettuno ........................................................................................................................146 Other Fortresses ....................................................................................................................148 1502 Romagna campaign .....................................................................................................149 Urbino ...................................................................................................................................150 Isabella d’Este - Michelangelo’s Sleeping Cupid .................................................................151 Machiavelli ...........................................................................................................................154 Court at Cesena .....................................................................................................................157 Lorenz Beheim......................................................................................................................164 Leonardo da Vinci