Black Peril, White Fear – Representations of Violence and Race in South Africa’s English Press, 1976-2002, and Their Influence on Public Opinion Inauguraldissertation zur Erlangung der Doktorwürde der Philosophischen Fakultät der Universität zu Köln vorgelegt von Christine Ullmann Institut für Völkerkunde Universität zu Köln Köln, Mai 2005 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The work presented here is the result of years of research, writing, re-writing and editing. It was a long time in the making, and may not have been completed at all had it not been for the support of a great number of people, all of whom have my deep appreciation. In particular, I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Michael Bollig, Prof. Dr. Richard Janney, Dr. Melanie Moll, Professor Keyan Tomaselli, Professor Ruth Teer-Tomaselli, and Prof. Dr. Teun A. van Dijk for their help, encouragement, and constructive criticism. My special thanks to Dr Petr Skalník for his unflinching support and encouraging supervision, and to Mark Loftus for his proof-reading and help with all language issues. I am equally grateful to all who welcomed me to South Africa and dedicated their time, knowledge and effort to helping me. The warmth and support I received was incredible. Special thanks to the Burch family for their help settling in, and my dear friend in George for showing me the nature of determination. Finally, without the unstinting support of my two colleagues, Angelika Kitzmantel and Silke Olig, and the moral and financial backing of my family, I would surely have despaired. Thank you all for being there for me. We were cut off from the comprehension of our surroundings; we glided past like phantoms, wondering and secretly appalled, as sane men would be before an enthusiastic outbreak in a madhouse. We could not understand because we were too far and could not remember, because we were travelling in the night of the first ages, of those ages that are gone, leaving hardly a sign – and no memories. Joseph Conrad, Heart of Darkness TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES.................................................................................................................V INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................1 1. DEFINING MY APPROACH: SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND AND METHODS... 7 1.1 SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND ............................................................................................... 7 1.1.1 ANTHROPOLOGICAL MEDIA STUDIES .............................................................................. 8 1.1.2 CULTURAL STUDIES ...................................................................................................... 12 1.1.3 CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS (CDA)....................................................................... 15 1.2 METHODS ........................................................................................................................ 18 1.2.1 INFORMATION SOURCING .............................................................................................. 18 1.2.2 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION ......................................................................................... 19 1.2.3 INTERVIEWS .................................................................................................................. 20 1.2.4 NEWSPAPER ANALYSIS.................................................................................................. 24 2. VIOLENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA – SOME INSIGHTS............................................. 28 2.1 SOME GENERAL OBSERVATIONS ABOUT VIOLENCE ..................................................... 28 2.2 THE HISTORY OF SOUTH AFRICA, A HISTORY OF VIOLENCE....................................... 33 2.2.1 THE BIRTH OF MODERN SOUTH AFRICA........................................................................ 34 2.2.2 THE RISE OF APARTHEID ............................................................................................... 34 2.2.3 THE 1960S: THE LIGHTING OF THE FUSE ....................................................................... 36 2.2.4 THE 1970S: THE END OF PEACE AND QUIET.................................................................. 38 2.2.5 THE 1980S: VIOLENCE, REFORM, AND CHECKMATE ..................................................... 41 2.2.6 THE 1990S: THE DECADE OF (VIOLENT) CHANGE......................................................... 45 2.3 THE CHARACTER OF VIOLENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA ...................................................... 48 2.3.1 MAINTAINING POWER A ALL COST – GOVERNMENT SANCTIONED POLICE VIOLENCE.. 49 a) ‘Legal Police Killings’ ...................................................................................................... 50 b) The Kitskonstabels............................................................................................................ 50 c) Torture............................................................................................................................... 52 d) Death in Detention ............................................................................................................ 53 2.3.2 DEATH SQUADS ............................................................................................................. 55 2.3.3 THE MILITARY OCCUPATION OF THE TOWNSHIPS ......................................................... 56 2.3.4 TERRORISM OR GUERRILLA WAR? – THE LIBERATION MOVEMENTS’ FIGHT AGAINST APARTHEID ............................................................................................................................... 58 a) Bombings .......................................................................................................................... 59 b) Mines................................................................................................................................. 60 c) ‘Civil Disobedience’ and ‘Public Violence’ – A Brief Explanation................................. 61 d) Unrest / Onrus ................................................................................................................... 61 e) From Riot to Revolution ................................................................................................... 62 f) Urban Terrorists / Guerrillas.............................................................................................. 63 2.3.5 THE ‘COMRADES’.......................................................................................................... 64 2.3.6 ‘NECKLACINGS’ / BURNING PEOPLE ALIVE ................................................................... 65 2.3.7 MODERATE, BUT ONLY ON THE SURFACE: INKATHA ..................................................... 67 2.3.8 FIGHTING VIOLENCE WITH VIOLENCE: VIGILANTES...................................................... 69 2.3.9 TSOTSIS ......................................................................................................................... 71 2.3.10 WARLORDS ................................................................................................................. 72 2.3.11 THE ‘THIRD FORCE’ .................................................................................................... 72 2.3.12 VISIBLE AND STILL NON-EXISTENT: ‘BLACK-ON-BLACK VIOLENCE’......................... 74 2.3.13 THE ROLE OF THE WHITE RIGHT-WING ...................................................................... 75 2.3.14 FARM ATTACKS – POLITICAL VIOLENCE, CRIME OR NON-EXISTENT? ........................ 77 2.3.15 CRIMINAL VIOLENCE WITH NO POLITICAL BACKGROUND ............................................ 78 2.4 A QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF VIOLENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA..................................... 81 3. ANTI-COMMUNISM, NATIONALISM AND LIBERALISM: POLITICAL DISCOURSES IN SOUTH AFRICA ................................................................................... 86 3.1 THE NATIONALISM OF THE AFRIKAANS POPULATION .................................................. 87 3.2 POLITICAL THINKING AMONG ENGLISH SPEAKERS ..................................................... 88 3.3 WHERE THE TWO CAMPS MEET: WHITE OPINION IN SOUTH AFRICA ........................ 89 4. PAPER VOICES: THE REPRESENTATION OF VIOLENCE IN SOUTH AFRICA’S ENGLISH LANGUAGE PRESS ...................................................................... 91 4.1 GETTING TO KNOW THE MESSENGER: THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE PRESS IN SOUTH AFRICA ..................................................................................................................................... 93 4.1.1 THE APARTHEID YEARS ................................................................................................ 93 4.1.2 THE SITUATION AFTER 1990.......................................................................................... 95 4.2 AN ANALYSIS OF NEWS REPORTS IN TERMS OF THE ‘PROPAGANDA MODEL’............. 97 4.2.1 FACTORS THAT INFLUENCED THE AMOUNT OF REPORTS ON VIOLENCE ........................ 98 a) Censorship......................................................................................................................... 98 b) Spies in the Newsroom ................................................................................................... 102 c) Let’s not Go There – The Attitude within the Media Houses......................................... 103 d) Press Politics in the New South Africa ........................................................................... 105 4.2.2 THE QUANTITATIVE CHANGES IN THE REPORTING OF VIOLENCE...............................