232 pages 13.76 mm technical reportS series no. This book provides a comprehensive treatment of cyclotrons, with a special emphasis on pro- duction of radionuclides. Individual sections are devoted to accelerator technology, theoreti- cal aspects of nuclear reactions, the technol- ogy behind targetry, techniques for preparation of targets, irradiation of targets under high 465 beam currents, target processing and target recovery. This book will appeal to scientists and Technical Reports SeriEs No. 465 technologists interested in translating cyclo- tron technology into practice, as well as post- graduate students in this field. Cyclotron Produced Radionuclides: Principles and Practice Cyclotron Produced Radionuclides: Principles and Practice INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA ISBN 978–92–0–100208–2 ISSN 0074–1914 D465_covI-IV.indd 1 2008-10-21 13:52:56 CYCLOTRON PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE The following States are Members of the International Atomic Energy Agency: AFGHANISTAN GUATEMALA PAKISTAN ALBANIA HAITI PALAU ALGERIA HOLY SEE PANAMA ANGOLA HONDURAS PARAGUAY ARGENTINA HUNGARY PERU ARMENIA ICELAND PHILIPPINES AUSTRALIA INDIA POLAND AUSTRIA INDONESIA PORTUGAL AZERBAIJAN IRAN, ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF QATAR BANGLADESH IRAQ REPUBLIC OF MOLDOVA BELARUS IRELAND ROMANIA BELGIUM ISRAEL RUSSIAN FEDERATION BELIZE ITALY SAUDI ARABIA BENIN JAMAICA SENEGAL BOLIVIA JAPAN SERBIA BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA JORDAN BOTSWANA KAZAKHSTAN SEYCHELLES BRAZIL KENYA SIERRA LEONE BULGARIA KOREA, REPUBLIC OF SINGAPORE BURKINA FASO KUWAIT SLOVAKIA CAMEROON KYRGYZSTAN SLOVENIA CANADA LATVIA SOUTH AFRICA CENTRAL AFRICAN LEBANON SPAIN REPUBLIC LIBERIA SRI LANKA CHAD LIBYAN ARAB JAMAHIRIYA SUDAN CHILE LIECHTENSTEIN SWEDEN CHINA LITHUANIA SWITZERLAND COLOMBIA LUXEMBOURG SYRIAN ARAB REPUBLIC COSTA RICA MADAGASCAR TAJIKISTAN CÔTE D’IVOIRE MALAWI THAILAND CROATIA MALAYSIA THE FORMER YUGOSLAV CUBA MALI REPUBLIC OF MACEDONIA CYPRUS MALTA TUNISIA CZECH REPUBLIC MARSHALL ISLANDS TURKEY DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC MAURITANIA UGANDA OF THE CONGO MAURITIUS UKRAINE DENMARK MEXICO UNITED ARAB EMIRATES DOMINICAN REPUBLIC MONACO UNITED KINGDOM OF ECUADOR MONGOLIA GREAT BRITAIN AND EGYPT MONTENEGRO NORTHERN IRELAND EL SALVADOR MOROCCO UNITED REPUBLIC ERITREA MOZAMBIQUE ESTONIA MYANMAR OF TANZANIA ETHIOPIA NAMIBIA UNITED STATES OF AMERICA FINLAND NEPAL URUGUAY FRANCE NETHERLANDS UZBEKISTAN GABON NEW ZEALAND VENEZUELA GEORGIA NICARAGUA VIETNAM GERMANY NIGER YEMEN GHANA NIGERIA ZAMBIA GREECE NORWAY ZIMBABWE The Agency’s Statute was approved on 23 October 1956 by the Conference on the Statute of the IAEA held at United Nations Headquarters, New York; it entered into force on 29 July 1957. The Headquarters of the Agency are situated in Vienna. Its principal objective is “to accelerate and enlarge the contribution of atomic energy to peace, health and prosperity throughout the world’’. TECHNICAL REPORTS SERIES No. 465 CYCLOTRON PRODUCED RADIONUCLIDES: PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE INTERNATIONAL ATOMIC ENERGY AGENCY VIENNA, 2008 COPYRIGHT NOTICE All IAEA scientific and technical publications are protected by the terms of the Universal Copyright Convention as adopted in 1952 (Berne) and as revised in 1972 (Paris). The copyright has since been extended by the World Intellectual Property Organization (Geneva) to include electronic and virtual intellectual property. Permission to use whole or parts of texts contained in IAEA publications in printed or electronic form must be obtained and is usually subject to royalty agreements. Proposals for non-commercial reproductions and translations are welcomed and considered on a case-by-case basis. Enquiries should be addressed to the IAEA Publishing Section at: Sales and Promotion, Publishing Section International Atomic Energy Agency Wagramer Strasse 5 P.O. Box 100 1400 Vienna, Austria fax: +43 1 2600 29302 tel.: +43 1 2600 22417 email: [email protected] http://www.iaea.org/books © IAEA, 2008 Printed by the IAEA in Austria December 2008 STI/DOC/010/465 IAEA Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Cyclotron produced radionuclides : principles and practice. — Vienna : International Atomic Energy Agency, 2008. p. ; 24 cm. — (Technical reports series, ISSN 0074–1914; no. 465) STI/DOC/010/465 ISBN 978–92–0–100208–2 Includes bibliographical references. 1. Radioisotopes in medical diagnosis. 2. Radioisotopes — Therapeutic use. 3. Cyclotrons. 4. Targets (Nuclear physics) I. International Atomic Energy Agency. II. Series: Technical reports series (International Atomic Energy Agency) ; 465. IAEAL 08–00529 FOREWORD Application of radioisotopes has shown a significant growth in the last decade, and one of the major factors contributing towards this increased growth has been the availability of a large number of cyclotrons exclusively dedicated to the production of radioisotopes for medical applications. A recent IAEA survey (Directory of Cyclotrons Used for Radionuclide Production in Member States, IAEA-DCRP/2006) estimated that there are more than 350 cyclotrons available in Member States. Many of these cyclotrons are dedicated to the production of isotopes for positron emission tomography (PET), more specifically, 18F for the production of fluorodeoxyglucose (18FDG). Although production of isotopes other than 18F using these cyclotrons is limited, their use could be augmented for the production of the large number of isotopes useful in medicine and industry. The IAEA has been extending support in various forms to Member States to acquire as well as to enhance the technology for production of isotopes using cyclotrons. Publications covering different aspects of radioisotope production using cyclotrons are one such means of support identified by Member States needing IAEA input. A Consultants Meeting organized during 2004 identified the necessity for publications on different aspects of cyclotron produced isotopes. During the preparation of the above publication, as well as during the deliberations of an international symposium on Trends in Radiopharmaceuticals (ISTR-2005) held in Vienna during November 2005, the need for a comprehensive book on cyclotrons with a special emphasis on production of isotopes was identified. The main reason was the lack of a single source of up to date information on this topic, despite the availability of a large number of related publications in the scientific literature. Work towards the preparation of such a publication was initiated during a Consultants Meeting held in Vienna during April 2006. The consultants suggested that the book should incorporate the basic science behind the accelerator technology, in addition to providing all relevant information regarding radioisotope production. Consequently, this publication contains chapters on, for example, accelerator technology, theoretical considerations about nuclear reactions, the technology behind targetry, techniques on preparation of targets, irradiation of targets under high beam currents, target processing and target recovery. Chapters highlighting the uses of cyclotron produced isotopes, as well as future trends in this field, are included. The intended readership of this publication is scientists interested in translating this technology into practice, technologists already working in Member States with cyclotrons who wish to enhance the utility of existing machines, and managers who are in the process of setting up facilities. In addition, students working towards higher degrees in related fields will also greatly benefit from reading this book. The manuscript for this publication was prepared by the following consultants: D.J. Schlyer, Brookhaven National Laboratory, United States of America; P. Van den Winkel, Cyclotron Laboratory, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Belgium; T.J. Ruth, TRIUMF, Canada; and M.M. Vora, King Faisal Specialist Hospital and Research Centre, Saudi Arabia. The IAEA thanks the consultants for their valuable contributions and is also grateful to those scientists who reviewed the manuscript for this book. The IAEA officers responsible for this publication were M.R.A. Pillai and M. Haji-Saeid of the Division of Physical and Chemical Sciences. EDITORIAL NOTE The use of particular designations of countries or territories does not imply any judgement by the publisher, the IAEA, as to the legal status of such countries or territories, of their authorities and institutions or of the delimitation of their boundaries. The mention of names of specific companies or products (whether or not indicated as registered) does not imply any intention to infringe proprietary rights, nor should it be construed as an endorsement or recommendation on the part of the IAEA. The authors are responsible for having obtained the necessary permission for the IAEA to reproduce, translate or use material from sources already protected by copyrights. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION . 1 1.1. Scope of the book . 1 1.2. Uses of accelerator produced radioisotopes . 2 1.3. Accelerators . 2 1.4. Theory of radioisotope production . 3 1.5. Targetry . 4 1.6. Target preparation and irradiation . 4 1.7. Target processing and material recovery . 5 1.8. Future trends . 5 References to Chapter 1 . 5 CHAPTER 2: USES OF ACCELERATOR PRODUCED RADIOISOTOPES . 7 2.1. Introduction . 7 2.2. Radioisotope/radionuclide production . 9 2.2.1. Specific activity . 9 2.3. Radioactive tracers . 11 2.4. Medical applications . 13 2.4.1. Historical background . 13 2.4.2. Radionuclides for imaging . 14 2.4.3. Radionuclides for therapy . 18 2.5. Radiopharmaceuticals . 19 2.6. Industrial