How do emotions influence time perception? Exploring potential psychological factors directly underlying this relationship. Ewa Siedlecka A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Psychology Faculty of Science September 2019 Supervised by: Prof. Tom F. Denson1 Co-Supervised by: Dr. Chris Donkin1 1School of Psychology, Faculty of Science, UNSW Sydney Thesis/Dissertation Sheet Surname/Family Name : Siedlecka Given Name/s : Ewa Abbreviation for degree as give : PhD in the University calendar Faculty : Science School : Psychology How do emotions influence time perception? Exploring potential psychological factors Thesis Title : directly underlying this relationship. Abstract 350 words maximum: (PLEASE TYPE) Emotions are one factor that significantly influence how people perceive time (Droit-Volet & Meck, 2007). Existing models of time perception differ in their explanations of how emotions influence time perception, and each model possesses unique strengths and limitations (Scherer, 2000). The lack of consistency between existing models indicates a need to expand and consolidate these models to clarify the theoretical literature. One way of achieving this goal may be directly build upon the evidence for specific psychological factors in these models. As such, in this thesis, I explored the effects of some of these psychological factors on time perception. The factors I examined were arousal, physiology of the autonomic nervous system emotional valence, attention, and a personality dimension called time perspective. In this thesis, participants overestimated stimulus durations following emotional and parasympathetic inductions, which heightened arousal, relative to lower levels of arousal. Participants also overestimated stimulus durations following exposure to negative stimuli, relative to positive stimuli. Additionally, participants induced to experience immersion during a videogame overestimated stimulus durations relative to participants distracted by a timer while playing. Stimulus durations were also overestimated by individuals who were high in a specific time perspective personality dimension. However, this result was limited to instances in which the emotional recall task they completed was incongruent with this dimension. Overall, this thesis provided evidence that arousal, the autonomic nervous system, emotional valence, attention, and personality may directly underlie how emotions influence time perception. These results might eventually illustrate constructive ways to update and expand existing models of time perception. iv Inclusion of Publications Statement UNSW is supportive of candidates publishing their research results during their candidature as detailed in the UNSW Thesis Examination Procedure. Publications can be used in their thesis in lieu of a Chapter if: • The student contributed greater than 50% of the content in the publication and is the “primary author”, ie. the student was responsible primarily for the planning, execution and preparation of the work for publication • The student has approval to include the publication in their thesis in lieu of a Chapter from their supervisor and Postgraduate Coordinator. • The publication is not subject to any obligations or contractual agreements with a third party that would constrain its inclusion in the thesis • Please indicate whether this thesis contains published material or not. ☐ This thesis contains no publications, either published or submitted for publication Some of the work described in this thesis has been published and it has been ☒ documented in the relevant Chapters with acknowledgement This thesis has publications (either published or submitted for publication) ☒ incorporated into it in lieu of a chapter and the details are presented below v For each publication incorporated into the thesis in lieu of a Chapter, provide all of the requested details and signatures required vi Originality Statement ‘I hereby declare that this submission is my own work and to the best of my knowledge it contains no materials previously published or written by another person, or substantial proportions of material which have been accepted for the award of any other degree or diploma at UNSW or any other educational institution, except where due acknowledgement is made in the thesis. Any contribution made to the research by others, with whom I have worked at UNSW or elsewhere, is explicitly acknowledged in the thesis. I also declare that the intellectual content of this thesis is the product of my own work, except to the extent that assistance from others in the project's design and conception or in style, presentation and linguistic expression is acknowledged.’ vii Copyright Statement ‘I hereby grant the University of New South Wales or its agents the right to archive and to make available my thesis or dissertation in whole or part in the University libraries in all forms of media, now or here after known, subject to the provisions of the Copyright Act 1968. I retain all proprietary rights, such as patent rights. I also retain the right to use in future works (such as articles or books) all or part of this thesis or dissertation. I also authorise University Microfilms to use the 350 word abstract of my thesis in Dissertation Abstract International (this is applicable to doctoral theses only). I have either used no substantial portions of copyright material in my thesis or I have obtained permission to use copyright material; where permission has not been granted I have applied/will apply for a partial restriction of the digital copy of my thesis or dissertation.' viii Authenticity Statement ‘I certify that the Library deposit digital copy is a direct equivalent of the final officially approved version of my thesis. No emendation of content has occurred and if there are any minor variations in formatting, they are the result of the conversion to digital format.’ ix Acknowledgments Thank you to my supervisor, PROFESSOR Tom Denson. You provided countless opportunities, advice, and assistance: both for my thesis and my career. You allowed me to learn independently, but never hesitated to provide extra help when I needed it. Your guidance helped shape me into a better researcher, mentor, and writer. I immensely appreciate your endless encouragement, enthusiasm, generosity, and support. It has been a pleasure to learn from you. Thank you to my co-supervisor, Dr. Chris Donkin. Your expertise guided the cognitive aspects of my research and helped me improve my ideas and writing. I appreciate all the time and effort you spent providing feedback and advice. Your humor and enthusiasm for my ideas helped me to relax during stressful periods and learn to be confident and proud of my work. I want to thank the Level 13 research lab – Joanne Beames, Miriam Capper, Siobhan O’Dean, Dilan Sellahewa, and Liz Summerell. You all provided much needed motivation, advice and support. The countless chats in 1306 never failed to provide perspective and solidarity. Fireside chats and walks along the beach were a highlight. I also appreciate the endless hours that the interns and volunteers put into collecting data. A special mention to Nick Levy, for being by my side throughout this journey since our first year. Thank you to Dr. Peter Geelan-Small for your initial assistance writing code. Thank you to Professor Barry Markovsky. Your advice was instrumental to my confidence as a researcher. You encouraged me to break down barriers, no matter how established, and believe in my ideas. Thank you to my partner Tek. You are the reason I started to love my research. Thank you for believing in me, for supporting me, and for listening to a never-ending record. Your flexibility and positive attitude helped ease my worries and reminded me what is important. Thank you for facilitating adventures and lifting my spirits when I needed it. Thank you to my friends. I appreciate all the times you let me rant about my research, made me dinner, helped me solve problems, made me laugh, drank countless cups of tea with me, and took me on adventures to get away from it all. Your friendship has kept my sanity intact and my spirits high. A special mention to Lindsay and Jason, for growing with me, inspiring me, and always being there. x Abstract Emotions are one factor that significantly influence how people perceive time (Droit-Volet & Meck, 2007). Existing models of time perception differ in their explanations of how emotions influence time perception, and each model possesses unique strengths and limitations (Scherer, 2000). The lack of consistency between existing models indicates a need to expand and consolidate these models to clarify the theoretical literature. One way of achieving this goal may be directly build upon the evidence for specific psychological factors in these models. As such, in this thesis, I explored the effects of some of these psychological factors on time perception. The factors I examined were arousal, physiology of the autonomic nervous system, emotional valence, attention, and a personality dimension called time perspective. In this thesis, participants overestimated stimulus durations following emotional and parasympathetic inductions, which heightened arousal, relative to lower levels of arousal. Participants also overestimated stimulus durations following exposure to negative stimuli, relative to positive stimuli. Additionally, participants induced to experience immersion during a videogame overestimated stimulus durations