Celtic, Roman, and Everything in Between: The Evolution of the Sacred in Romano-Celtic Wales by Mackenzie Dinelle Pritchard A thesis presented to the University of Waterloo in fulfilment of the thesis requirement for the degree of Master of Arts in Classical Studies Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 2021 © Mackenzie Dinelle Pritchard 2021 i Author’s Declaration I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this thesis. This is a true copy of the thesis, including any required final revisions, as accepted by my examiners. I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public. ii Abstract Celtic religion is usually summarized with a quick discussion of druidic practices and human sacrifice. The actual ancient religion of the Insular Celtic populations was a lot more complicated. This thesis introduces the ancient Celtic religion practiced in Wales and discusses how the cultures of the Celtic and the Roman peoples interacted during their co-occupation of the British Isles, with emphasis on the evolution of the beliefs and practices which were considered sacred to those inhabiting the land. The syncretism of Celtic and Roman religious activity (beginning in 43 BCE until the arrival of Christianity around 200 CE) is difficult to separate in some instances because of the substantial similarities in the practices and beliefs. Hybridity of the sacred in ancient Wales can be seen in the historical written records of the Roman peoples, the archaeological evidence remaining in Britain, and in the socio-cultural outcomes which can be seen in the written medieval Welsh chwedlau (tales). While the Roman authors generally speak on the druids, the philosophical beliefs, and sacred practices of the Celtic peoples, the archaeological finds and epigraphic evidence provide more insight into the deities worshipped in Britain by both Roman and Celtic individuals, as well as some cultic customs. Later works, written by Welsh scribes, reveal (traditionally oral) mythologies and their portrayal on topics such as Celtic deities, the Otherworld and its inhabitants, and various Celtic festivals. The findings of this thesis have concluded that the practices of the Roman people did not displace those of the Celts completely but that the cultural and sacred practices of the Celts were integrated into the traditions of the Romans. iii Acknowledgements Throughout the writing of this thesis, I received a great deal of support and encouragement from many people in my life. I would like to thank Dr. David Porreca, my supervisor, for his continued support throughout both my undergraduate and graduate degrees. Writing this thesis would not have been possible without your patience or insight, and it certainly would not have been quite as enjoyable without your fun tangents alongside your invaluable critiques. Next, I would like to thank the Classical Studies department as a whole for fostering such a welcoming environment for me as a Medieval Studies student, and others like me, to collaborate with students as well as with professors. Specifically, to the members of my committee, Dr. Craig Hardiman, and Professors Andrew Faulkner and Reimer Faber, for taking time out of their summers to provide me with feedback to help me strengthen my thesis. To Brigitte Schneebeli, thank you for all that you do for the department and its students. Whether it be helping when my computer would not print my funding applications or setting up weekly online meetings to keep the community aspects of the department going during quarantine, the writing of my thesis would not have gone as smoothly without your assistance. To the friends I met at Waterloo, Jordan, Moira, Michelle, Zohra, Shannon, Armand, and Elakkiya, each of you is responsible for who I am today. I thank you for all the love you have shown me, the support you have given me, and all the hours we have shared working late on campus over the past few years. František, thank you for answering all the questions I had about folk traditions and British websites no matter how odd they seemed or how late I posed them. To Joanne, thank you for distracting me with our weekly coffee catch ups during this process and for being there for me regardless of how far away you were living. Finally, thank you to my family for your unwavering support. To my grandparents and my aunt who took me to Wales for the first time, thank you for piquing my interest in our genealogy and always encouraging me to pursue my love of history. A special thank you to my parents, you both have always encouraged me in my studies and have shown a great interest in my work throughout the years. I could not have completed this degree without your love and support. iv To my late cousin John. Thank you for sharing your love of British history with me. I wish I could have appreciated it more fully before your passing. v Table of Contents Author’s Declaration.............................................................................................................................................. ii Abstract .................................................................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................................................iv Dedication ................................................................................................................................................................ v List of Figures ....................................................................................................................................................... vii List of Tables ....................................................................................................................................................... viii List of Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................................................ix Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................. 1 Chapter 1: The Druidic Belief System ................................................................................................................... 8 1.1 Religious Castes ..................................................................................................................................... 9 1.2 Derwyddon Ynys Môn (Druids of Anglesey) ....................................................................................... 14 1.3 Philosophic Beliefs: Pythagorean Parallel ......................................................................................... 17 1.4 Philosophic Beliefs: On the Soul and Head Cults ............................................................................. 20 Chapter 2: Celtic Deities and Sacred Spaces ...................................................................................................... 24 2.1 Epigraphic Dedications .............................................................................................................................. 25 2.2 Welsh Deities from Native Sources ............................................................................................................ 31 2.3 Sacred Spaces: Sacred Land and Divine Nature ...................................................................................... 34 2.4 Sacred Spaces: Roman-Celtic Temples and Shrines ................................................................................ 41 Chapter 3: Life After Death ................................................................................................................................. 44 3.1 Description of the Otherworld ................................................................................................................... 45 3.2 Entrances to the Otherworld ..................................................................................................................... 48 3.3 Inhabitants of the Otherworld ................................................................................................................... 54 3.4 Funerary Rites and Burials ........................................................................................................................ 57 Chapter 4: Celebrations and Offerings ............................................................................................................... 63 4.1 Sacrificial Rites: Animals ........................................................................................................................... 63 4.2 Sacrificial Rites: Humans ........................................................................................................................... 65 4.3 Celebratory Fêtes and Divine Festivals ..................................................................................................... 69 Conclusion .............................................................................................................................................................. 77 Ancient Sources ..................................................................................................................................................... 81 Medieval Sources ..................................................................................................................................................