ISSN 1712-8358[Print] Cross-Cultural Communication ISSN 1923-6700[Online] Vol. 16, No. 4, 2020, pp. 88-97 www.cscanada.net DOI:10.3968/11990 www.cscanada.org The Western Timepieces in China From the Late Ming to the Middle of the Qing Dynasty Sisi Li[a]; Francesco Freddolini[b],* [a] Art History, Faculty of Media, Art, and Performance , University of Cross-Cultural Communication, 16(4), 88-97. Available from: Regina, Regina, SK, Canada. http//www.cscanada.net/index.php/ccc/article/view/11990 [b] Associate Professor, Francesco Freddolini, Art History, Sapienza DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3968/11990 University, Rome, Italy. *Corresponding author. Supported by the The Laura Bassi Scholarship. Received 7 October 2020; accepted 11 December 2020 Published online 26 December 2020 INTRODUCTION In the 16th century, Western timepieces were first introduced to Macao by Portuguese Jesuit missionary Abstract Michele Ruggieri (1543-1607) and then to mainland Western timepieces were introduced to China in the 16th China.1 These timepieces entered China as gifts and century and were favored by the Chinese upper class, and commodities, and they were mainly brought to meet the then gradually formed “Western Timepieces Consumption curiosity of the Chinese court and the upper class. These Heat” in China. Many Chinese churches, commercial Western striking clocks were called “Zi Ming Zhong” buildings, and public buildings had Western timepieces, and (自鸣钟) in China, which means they can automatically officials, priests, merchants, servants, and actors also wear report time. At the end of the Ming Dynasty, Chinese Western timepieces. As tributes, gifts and commodities, artisans began to learn the tech of timepieces and Western timepieces not only opened up new trade and imitate production, then they became a unique line of political relations between China and the West, but also handicrafts in the Qing Dynasty.2 Since the introduction served as a material carrier for Chinese and Western art of the timepieces to China, they became an extraordinary and cultural exchanges. Facing the massive introduction medium for communication between the East and the of Western timepieces, the attitude of the Chinese court West. These timepieces allowed missionaries to obtain towards Western timepieces was very different. Some upper residency in China which helped them open the door to class in China was willing to accept the multicultural and advanced ideas behind Western timepieces. Other upper 1 . classes, especially literati, had many criticisms of Western R. P. Henri Bernard, Aux Portes de La Chine Les missionaires du X VISiecle, Transl. Xiao Junhua, Shanghai: The Commercial Press, timepieces, insisting on the “Chinese Central Theory.” 1936. Behind these attitudes reflects the conflict and integration 2 . Watchmakers were divided into court craftsmen and folk of Chinese and Western cultures and aesthetics, therefore, craftsmen. The court craftsmen made clocks for the royal family, the introduction of Western timepieces into China has an working in the making clock department; The folk craftsmen generally worked in watchmaking factories, and they made clocks important value and significance for exploring how Western for the upper classes of society. Watchmaking factories were culture influences the evolution and cultural transformation generally distributed in Jiangnan, Fujian and Guangzhou. On the of early modern Chinese society. history of timepieces production in China see D. J. Macgowan, Western timepieces; Sino-western Chinese Guilds or Chambers of Commerce and Trades Unions Key words: (Shanghai: China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 1886); collecting; Early modern period Catherine Pagani, “Eastern Magnificence and European Ingenuity”: Clocks of Late Imperial China (Michigan: the University of Michigan Press, 2001); Catherine Pagani, “Clockmaking in Li, S. S., & Freddolini, F. (2020). The Western Timepieces in China under the Kangxi and Qianlong Emperor,” Arts Asiatiques, China From the Late Ming to the Middle of the Qing Dynasty. no.50(1995): 76-84. Copyright © Canadian Academy of Oriental and Occidental Culture 88 Sisi Li; Francesco Freddolini (2020). Cross-Cultural Communication, 16(4), 88-97 the Chinese Imperial Palace. The earliest case, in order powerful minister in the middle of the Qing Dynasty had to ensure the smooth development of Guangzhou trade been Chaojia, the 216 pieces of Western artifacts were and obtain permanent residency in Macau, is in 1582, found in the Rehe Residence. Among those Western Ruggieri brought an exquisite Western watch to Chen artifacts, there was one pocket watch, four table clocks, Rui who was a governor of Guangdong and Guangxi. and one pair of wall clocks.5 While this residence was According to Aux Portes de La Chine Les missionaires just one of his simplest places, and one can imagine how du X VISiecle, Ruggieri changed the Arabic characters to many timepieces were in his other house. However, the Chinese and altered the 24-hour system to 12-hour system timepieces obtained from the Chaojia are very few cases, in order to cater to Chinese habits. This was by far the so they are not discussed in detail here. earliest example of a timekeeping modification.3 Chen First of all, tribute was the main way to get the Rui was devoted to this watch and approved Ruggieri’s timepieces in court, and it was also the initial way. In permanent residency in Macau. In addition to the above, 1579, the Jesuits Alexandre Valignani (1538-1606), Western timepieces were also used as precious gifts from an Italian Jesuit priest, came to East. At this time, the private social activities to the transnational diplomacy; Western Jesus Church had begun to plan a Chinese-style as a representative collection from the purchase of royal missionary strategy6. In 1579, Michele Ruggieri (1543- supplies to transnational trade between China and the 1607) came to Macao at the invitation of Valignani and West. began to learn Chinese and prepared to enter the Chinese This paper is divided into three parts. The first mainland. In 1581, Ruggieri gave the governor Huang part analyzes the ways that Western timepieces were Yingjia a mechanical watch, which helped him entry into introduced to China and reveals the hidden purposes the mainland. This was called the “timepieces diplomacy” behind those ways; the second part reveals the that the Jesuits planned in order to preach in China.7 transportation and collection of Western timepieces in Afterwards, Matteo Ricci (1552-1610), an Italian Jesuit China, and analyzes how Western timepieces opened up priest, decided to go to Beijing to get Emperor Ming new trade diplomacy between China and the West; the Guangzong’s (1582-1620) approval, thus making it a more third part, dissects the integration and conflict of Chinese extensive mission in China. Ricci’s trip continued to give and Western cultures from the attitude towards Western local bureaucrats and imperial courtiers such wonderful timepieces in the Chinese court. This paper deals with objects, such as timepieces and prisms, in exchange for interdisciplinary knowledge, and it will help scholars to permission to stay in the area or to enter Beijing. In 1601, have a clearer understanding of the history of politics, Ricci arrived in Beijing and presented gifts. Emperor trade, and cultural exchanges between China and the West Guangzong were fully appreciative of the big and small from the late Ming to the middle of the Qing Dynasty. mechanical timepieces. He had the small ones with him The introduction of Western timepieces into China has and built a wooden attic for the big clock.8 The emperor an important value and significance for exploring how had a good impression of the priests because of these Western culture influences the evolution and cultural pleasing gifts, and he also became interested in European transformation of early modern Chinese society. civilization. In the end, Ricci successfully settled in THE WAYS AND PURPOSES OF 5 . In 1781, the Governor Hang Jiahu was Chaojia, forfeiting five striking clocks, one table clock and one watch; the governor Chen THE INTRODUCTION OF WESTERN Huizu was Chaojia, forfeiting 71 timepieces. In 1782, the governor Guotai was Chaojia, forfeiting one hanging screens with clock, TIMEPIECES INTO CHINA four table clocks and one watch; In 1786, the Governor Fu Lehun Since the introduction of Western timepieces into China was Chaojia, forfeiting a pair of boîte à musique with clocks, a pair of music clocks, a table clock, a pair of wall clocks... a total of 30 in the late Ming Dynasty, the speed of acceptance in pieces. It can be seen that these corrupt officials collected not only China had been unmatched by any other Western objects. a large number of timepieces, but also a lot of styles. See China’s As a result, the peculiar phenomenon of the “Western first historical archives(中国第一历史档案馆编), ed., Archives of Timepieces Consumption Heat” in the middle period of corrupt officials in Qianlong Dynasty 乾隆朝惩办贪污档案选编< > (Beijing: China Book Company, 1994). the Qing Dynasty was formed. The sources of imported 6 . This strategy was to combine Christianity with Confucianism. timepieces were mainly divided into two categories: Advocating the basic idea of Christianity and Confucius was the tribute and purchase. There were also a few cases when same because they were all ideas that advocated the unity of nature and man. So that Christianity can be more widely accepted in China. royal families held those timepieces when an official had 7 . 4 R.P.Henri Bernard, Aux Portes de La Chine Les missionaires du been Chaojia . For example, when He Shen, the most X VISiecle, Part II, Chapter 1, Transl. Xiao Junhua (Shanghai: The Commercial Press, 1936), 190. 8 . Nicolas S. J Trigault, ed., China in the Sixteenth Century: The 3 . R.P.Henri Bernard, Aux Portes de La Chine Les missionaires du X Journals of Mathew Ricci: 1583-1610, Vol.4, Chinese transl.