1 The Development of a Tory Ideology and Identity 1760-1832 Fiona Eleanor Duncan University of Stirling Submitted for the degree of doctor of philosophy October 2015 2 Abstract This thesis examines the ideas which underpinned early nineteenth century Toryism and their development in the late eighteenth century. It argues that a distinct, coherent, refined Tory identity emerged from the Tory splits between 1827 and 1830. This was preceded by a process of renegotiation and consolidation in Tory ideology and identity from 1760 onwards. The period between the accession of George III, in 1760, and the passage of the First Reform Act, in 1832, witnessed consistent and sustained crises regarding the constitution established in Church and state. The outbreak of revolutions in America and France reinvigorated debates regarding the nature and location of political sovereignty as well as the relationship between the crown and parliament. Lengthy wars against each nation were followed by severe economic depressions, the apparent proliferation of domestic political radicalism, and intermittent, but determined, demands for parliamentary reform. In addition, there were persistent attempts to alter the religious basis of the constitution to accommodate both Protestant pluralism and, from 1801, predominantly Catholic Ireland. This thesis contends that the debates surrounding these issues contributed to the rehabilitation and renegotiation of late- seventeenth-century and early-eighteenth-century Tory ideas. It also contends that, in moments of crisis and reaction, old Toryism converged with the conservative elements of an increasingly fractured Whig tradition in defence of the constitutional status quo. This convergence, apparent in the opening decades of George III’s reign, was consolidated in the context of the French Revolution. Consequently, after 1812, a broad, but loose, ideological consensus emerged, labelled as Tory, underpinned by anti- populism, commitment to the preservation of Christian orthodoxy, and the establishment of the Church of England. However, below this broad ideological umbrella, differences persisted which created tensions, contributing to the divisions between 1827 and 1830, and, through them, the refinement of Tory identity. 3 Contents Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………4 Abbreviations……………………………………………………………………….5 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………6 - Background…………………………………………………………………..7 - Methodology and Sources…..…………………………….............................19 - Terminology ………………………………………………………………...26 Part One: The Constitution in the State Chapter One: The Crown, Parliament, and the People…………………………..29 - The Roots of Opposition Whiggery and Tory Revival……………………….31 - The Origin of Sovereignty and the Limits of Obedience…..............................36 - The Constitution Established by Law………………………...........................57 - Radicalism and Reform in the Nineteenth Century…………………………..76 - Conclusion…………………………………………………………………….98 Chapter Two: Political Economy and the Movement towards Free Trade……100 - Pitt and Economic Liberalisation in the Eighteenth Century……………….104 - Liberal Toryism and the Movement towards Free Trade…………………...111 - The Defence of Protection…………………………………………………..128 - Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...143 Part Two: The Constitution in the Church Chapter Three: Attitudes to Protestant Pluralism………………………………145 - The Religious Basis of Party Identity…………………………………….....145 - Rebellion…………………………………………………………………......153 - Rationalism………………………………………………………………......166 - Enthusiasm…………………………………………………………………...188 - Repeal………………………………………………………………………. 207 - Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...210 Chapter Four: Catholicism………………………………………………………...213 - Catholicism and the Extent of Consensus…………………………………...215 - Pro-Catholicism……………………………………………………………...228 - Anti-Catholicism………………………………………………………….....234 - Tory Splits and the Passage of Emancipation…………………………….....252 - Conclusion…………………………………………………………………...258 Conclusion to Thesis……………………………………………………………….261 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………..267 4 Acknowledgements I am forever grateful to Dr Emma Macleod for encouraging my interest in the eighteenth century as an undergraduate, and for her patience, support, and guidance as my doctoral supervisor. I am also thankful to Professor David Bebbington for his secondary supervision. Both have offered astute comments and stimulating discussion regarding the points expressed in this thesis, though its conclusions, of course, remain my own. Furthermore, the academic staff and doctoral students in the division of History and Politics at the University of Stirling have provided an engaging environment to conduct research and facilitated my intellectual development through a variety of seminars, conferences, and informal discussions. I would like to thank the institutions, both academic and charitable, which have contributed financial support towards the completion of my research, including the Institute of Historical Research, Royal Historical Society, McGlashan Charitable Trust, Perth and Kinross Council, and the University of Stirling. Also, I am very grateful to staff in the various libraries in which my research has been conducted. Finally, I am grateful to my friends and family, particularly my mother, father and brother for their unrelenting love, patience, and moral support, without which the completion of this project would not have been possible. 5 Abbreviations AJ The Anti-Jacobin Review and Magazine (1798-1821) BEM Blackwood’s Edinburgh Magazine (1817-1902) BC The British Critic (1793-1826) and The British Critic, Quarterly Theological Review and Ecclesiastical Record (1827-1837) ODNB Oxford Dictionary of National Biogrpahy PH William Cobbett (ed.), Cobbett’s Parliamentary History of England from The Norman Conquest in 1066 to the year 1803, 36 vols. (London, 1806- 20) PD T.C Hansard (ed.), The Parliamentary Debates: forming a continuation of the work entitled “The Parliamentary History of England from the earliest period to the year 1803”, 41 vols. (London, 1803-1820) PD, NS T.C Hansard (ed.), The Parliamentary Debates: forming a continuation of the work entitled “The Parliamentary History of England from the earliest period to the year 1803”, New Series, 41 vols. (London, 1820-1830) PD, Series 3 T.C Hansard (ed.), The Parliamentary Debates: forming a continuation of the work entitled “The Parliamentary History of England from the earliest period to the year 1803”, Series 3, 356 vols. (London, 1830- 1891) QR The Quarterly Review (1809-1906) 6 Introduction This thesis examines the ideas which underpinned early nineteenth-century Toryism and their development in the late eighteenth century. It argues that a distinct, coherent, refined Tory identity emerged from the Tory splits between 1827 and 1830. This was preceded by a process of renegotiation and consolidation in Tory ideology and identity from 1760 onwards. The period between the accession of George III, in 1760, and the passage of the First Reform Act, in 1832, witnessed consistent and sustained crises regarding the constitution established in Church and state. The outbreak of revolutions in America and France reinvigorated debates regarding the nature and location of political sovereignty as well as the relationship between the crown and parliament. Lengthy wars against each nation were followed by severe economic depressions, the apparent proliferation of domestic political radicalism, and intermittent, but determined, demands for parliamentary reform. In addition, there were persistent attempts to alter the religious basis of the constitution to accommodate both Protestant pluralism and, from 1801, predominantly Catholic Ireland. This thesis contends that the debates surrounding these issues contributed to the rehabilitation and renegotiation of late- seventeenth century and early-eighteenth century Tory ideas. It also contends that, in moments of crisis and reaction, old Toryism converged with the conservative elements of an increasingly fractured Whig tradition in defence of the constitutional status quo. This convergence, apparent in the opening decades of George III’s reign, was consolidated in the context of the French Revolution. Consequently, after 1812, a broad, but loose ideological consensus emerged which was labelled as Tory. It was underpinned by anti-populism, commitment to the preservation of Christian orthodoxy, and the establishment of the Church of England. However, below this broad ideological umbrella, differences persisted. Importantly, these ideological differences, and the splits which they engendered, played a central role in the development of Tory identity. Fissures amongst Tories were encouraged by the introduction of free trade and the growing prominence of political economy, the continued proliferation of Protestant pluralism and, most importantly, the question of Catholic emancipation. Debates on these issues facilitated the construction of a ‘liberal’ political other, characterised by pragmatism, conciliation and concession, from which Toryism was increasingly distinguished. This process of refinement culminated in high- 7 political divisions and Ultra-Tory rebellion between 1827 and 1830. In 1827, when the Liberal-Tory, pro-Catholic George Canning assumed the premiership, six cabinet ministers resigned, all but one citing Canning’s pro-Catholic sentiments as motivation. Subsequently, disagreement over economic policy between the High Tory Charles Herries and the Liberal Tory William