Université d'Ottawa University of Ottawa The University of Ottawa Deparâment of Classics & Religious Studies Département des &tudes anciennes et de sciences des religions Ph. D. Thesis "BODILY COMPASSION:" VALUES AND IDEM FORMATION IN THE SALVATION ARMY, 1880- 1900 (C, Barbara ROBINSON Supervisor: Rof. Robert Choquette National Library Bibliothèque nationale 1*1 of Canada du Canada Acquisitions and Acquisitions et Bibliographie Services services bibliographiques 395 Wellington Street 395. w Wdlingtori OnawaON KlAON4 Ol(awaON K1A ON9 Canada CaMda The author has granted a non- L'auteur a accordé une licence non exclusive licence ailowing the exclusive pemettant à la National Library of Canada to Bibliothèque nationale du Canada de reproduce, loan, distribute or sel1 reproduire, prêter, distribuer ou copies of this thesis in microfonn, vendre des copies de cette thèse sous paper or electronic formats. la forme de microfiche/film, de reproduction sur papier ou sur format électronique. The author retains ownership of the L'auteur conserve la propriété du copyright in this thesis. Neither the droit d'auteur qui protège cette thèse. thesis nor substantial extracts fiom it Ni la thèse ni des extraits substantiels may be printed or othewise de celle-ci ne doivent être imprimés reproduced without the author's ou autrement reproduits sans son permission. autorisation. TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Abstract Acknowledgements Introduction Chapter One Heroic Spiritudity: No War Without Wounds Chapter Two Sectarian Systems: The Democratization of Care Chapter Three The Regulated Life: The Medicalization of Moraiity Chapter Four Between the Classes and the Masses: Philanthropie Care and the Missioning Community Chapter Five The Ambulance Corps: Nursing, Medicine and Occupational Health Conclusion Bibliography 1. Manuscript Sources Personal Papers Other Manuscript Sources II. Periodicais Salvation Army Periodicals Medical Periodicals Other Periodicals III. PubiishedPrimarySowces Autobiographies and Biographies Books and Pamphiets N. Other Published Sources V. Unpubbhed Mastem and Doctoral D'irtations ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION "BODILY COMPASSION": VALUES AND IDENTITY FORMATION IN THE SALVATION ARMY. 1880- 1900. Candidate: Barbara D. Robinson Dissertation Director: Dr. Robert Choquette By the end of the nineteenth century, The Saivation Amy, an offshwt of British Methodism, had become a respected feature on the Victorian cultural landscape. The fierce opposition the Anny faced in its earliest days, for the manner in which it adapted forms of working class popular culture as a means of religious expression, and for its controversial use of women as preachers or "Hallelujah lasses," had been replaced by popular admiration for its philanthropie work among the poor and the socially marginalized. This thesis analyzes the course of this transition. Much of the rehabilitation of reputation can be attributed to the work of a second wave of women recruits who assumed less socially transgressive rninistry roles as rescue workers or nurses in the Army's expanding network of social services. Informed by a "heroic" spirituality which emphasized social duty. self-sacrifice and moraI influence, these "Social Officers" dramatically embodied an ideaiized late nineteenth-century behaviourai ethos and won the movement adrnirers if not adherents. The Salvation Army's concened cornmitment to a "principle of noncontroversy" broadened its cultural acceptability and invited some unusual alliances. This can be particularly demonstated in the denomination's interaction with a range of Victorian health reform movements: hydropathy, homoeopathy and vegetarianism. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS So many people have offered me their support and encouragement through the duration of this project that it is difficult to know where to begin to Say thank you. Dr. Robert Choquette, my thesis advisor, has engaged in countless conversations about the nineteenth century and its religious history. His close historical attention to the work of the Oblate Fathers in North Arnerica has offered a fascinating vantage point for a cornparison of the nature of mission passion in the "Evangelical century." He has offered unfailingly helpful suggestions and critique and has gamely tolerated the reaiity of my other, nonacadernic vocationai life with its demands upon my time. While accessing the part-time instnictor's office at The University of Ottawa, 1 frequently benefitted from informal discussions pertaining to the sociology of emerging religious movements with the Department Chair, Dr. Peter Beyer. Dr. Beyer subsequently se~ed on my thesis examining comrnittee, a cornmittee of scholars I highly respect, and whose work has significantly influenced my own acadernic trajectory: Dr. William Westfail, History, York University; Dr. Pamela Walker, History. Carleton University; and Dr. David Jeffrey, English, University of Ottawa. Because 1 am a Salvation Army Officer, that is, an ordained member of the denominational clergy, 1 am both grateful and substantially indebted to The Salvation Army for ailowing me adequate flexibility in my current role at the Ottawa Grace Hospital to complete this project. Majors Bert and Kathie Sharp and the members of the iii Gladstone Avenue Salvation Army congregation have tolerated with grace and encouragement my "here today, gone tornorrow" ministry involvement in their midst. Toni Surko, manager of The Grace Parish Nursing Program, has moved Our new nursing mode1 forward in a remarkable way and Judy Maclntosh has brought the plans for the impiementation of this program at Gladstone to fruition. 1 have appreciated the assistance of the efficient archivists working for The Salvation Army in both England and Toronto. From the International Hentage Centre in London, a particular thanks must be extended to Lt. Colonel Jenty Fairbank, Mr. Gordon Taylor and their gracious and humourous staff. My work in England was always done under extreme time pressure, and they went out of their way to help me make the time productive. Although my thesis concentrated on mission developments in the United Kingdom, Major Flo Curzon, then of the George Scott Railton Heritage Center in Toronto also provided helpful research assistance. 1 am grateful to have been the recipient of an Ontario Graduate Scholarship which made this archiva1 research financially possible. While in the United Kingdom and missing my family, 1 vaiued the kind hospitality of Officers associated with the headquarters in London: Connie Croly, Cynthia (White) Dalziel, and Ann Powell. And 1 will not soon forget the delightfùl day of insightful conversation in Norwich Cathedra1 with Commissioner Dr. Harry Williams, an important "health innovator" from a period latet than my own research focus. His story and that of his colleagues in medicai missions remains to be told: a later project? Dr. Vikki Bennett of the University of Ottawa Press found me a desk in a back room to work, shared with me her comprehensive knowledge of religious history and material culture, daily modelled a disciplined approach to academic endeavour for which 1 will always be grateful, and plain and simply "blessed me" with her warm and generous friendship. Elizabeth Thibeault, in the same office, is another supportive and creative friend. On a number of occasions, 1 benefitted from conversation and the sharing of archiva1 resources with James Opp, a doctoral candidate in the Department of History at Carleton University, whose work focuses on faith healing narratives in nineteenth-century North America. James aiso gave me the needed boost to present my first academic paper by inviting my participation with him in a session for the Canadian Historical Association. I am also grateful for the encouragement of Parnela Walker, professor of British History at Carleton University. Our conversations were informal and too few: this in no way due to any unwillingness on Dr. Walker's part but reflecting instead my own student insecurity in the light of the excellence of her work, as well as her sabbatical leave from the Ottawa- Carleton region when 1 finaily arrived at the writing stage of this project. 1 have valued the association with the Tuesday moming reading group at the University of Ottawa. This fellowship of senior Christian scholars have opened their hearts and shared their expertise with many of the graduate students on campus. They have helped me, as a working "church person" to feel both connected to the academic environment and challenged by the ongoing debate surrounding the nature of the Academy in contemporary culture. SirniMy, 1 have appreciated the ongoing encouragement of those Officers and 1aymen with whom 1 participated in the 1995 Nagercoil, India consultation on Salvation Army health minisuies. They have encouraged me by their belief in the need for ongoing historical and theological reflection on our denominationai work in health care. My colleagues at the William and Catherine Booth College in Winnipeg discussed aspects of this project with me as it has unfolded: Ray and Cathie Harris. Jim and Laurie Read. In a sirnilar manner, Drs. Edith and Christopher Humphrey have held me to task. I am incredibly fortunate to have parents who have supported my academic interests over many, many years, Brarnwell and Maude Tillsley. The fact that my father retired in 1994 as the International leader or "Generai" of The Salvation Army has given me, at times, a unique inner perspective on the demands and challenges of leadership in what is still a highly autocratic