governance and pest management and pest governance on in Benin: Cott Cott on in Benin: governance and pest management Codjo Euloge Togbé Codjo Euloge Togbé Codjo Euloge Cotton in Benin: governance and pest management Codjo Euloge Togbé Thesis committee Promotors Prof. Dr A. van Huis Personal Chair at the Laboratory of Entomology Wageningen University Prof. Dr D. K. Kossou Professor at Plant Sciences Group Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin Prof. Dr S. D. Vodouhê Professor of Sociology Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin Co-promotor Dr R. Haagsma Assistant professor, Development Economics Group Wageningen University Other members: Prof. Dr P.C. Struik, Wageningen University Prof. Dr J.L.C. Jiggins, Wageningen University Prof. M.C. Akogbéto, Université d’Abomey-Calavi, Cotonou, Benin Dr O. Coulibaly, International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Cotonou, Benin This research was conducted under the auspices of the Graduate School of Production Ecology and Resource Conservation. Cotton in Benin: governance and pest management Codjo Euloge Togbé Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of doctor at Wageningen University by the authority of the Rector Magnificus Prof. Dr M.J. Kropff, in the presence of the Thesis Committee appointed by the Academic Board to be defended in public on Tuesday 10 December 2013 at 11 a.m. in the Amphi Houdégbé. Codjo Euloge Togbé Cotton in Benin: governance and pest management, 201 pages. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, Wageningen, NL (2013) With references, with summaries in English, Dutch and French ISBN 978-94-6173-807-3 To my spouse Brigitte & My daughter Couronnée Abstract Codjo Euloge, Togbé 2013. Cotton in Benin: governance and pest management. PhD thesis, Wageningen University, The Netherlands. With summaries in English, Dutch and French, 201 pp. Pests are one of the main factors limiting cotton production worldwide. Most of the pest control strategies in cotton production rely heavily on the application of synthetic pesticides. The recurrent use of synthetic pesticides has large consequences for the environment (air, water, fauna, and flora) and human health. In cotton growing areas in Benin, targeted pests develop resistance, and this resistance is extended to malaria mosquitos. Other negative impacts are pest resurgence and secondary pest outbreaks due to the effects on the beneficial insect fauna. This dissertation addresses the technical and institutional constraints hindering the wide-scale use of staggered targeted control, ‘Lutte étagée ciblée’ (LEC, in French) for cotton production. Wider adoption of LEC can only be achieved if some institutional changes were to occur, such as in the role of input suppliers in order to improve the procurement of LEC pesticides. This can only happen if farmers would be empowered and better organised. Locally available phytochemicals and biopesticides can be used to address problems related to the difficulty in obtaining synthetic pesticides, as well as their negative environmental impact. Neem oil (Azadirachta indica) and Beauveria bassiana are good candidates to be used in an integrated pest management approach, as their impact on the beneficial fauna is minimal. We tested whether the efficacy could be enhanced by using mixed formulations of neem oil and bio-insecticides, but yields obtained with neem oil used alone and mixed with biopesticides were not different. This suggests an absence of a synergistic effect between neem oil and B. bassiana (Bb11) and between neem oil and B. thuringiensis. The combination of biopesticides increased the cost of production more than that of the conventional treatments, compromising the profitability of such formulations. Participation in the research process increased farmers’ knowledge on pest and natural enemy recognition. The increase in knowledge did not lead to any modification in farmer practices with respect to the use of neem oil and Beauveria, but it led to a significant change towards threshold-based pesticide applications. Policy implications for successfully changing farming practices are discussed. Key words: cotton, synthetic pesticides, neem oil (Azadirachta indica), Beauveria bassiana, Bacillus thuringiensis, field experiment, farmers’ participation Contents Chapter 1 General introduction 1 Chapter 2 Alleviating technical and institutional constraints of a cotton pest 21 management strategy in Benin Chapter 3 Evaluation of the 2009 reform of the cotton sector in Benin: perspectives 47 from the field Chapter 4 Evaluating alternatives to conventional cotton pest control in Benin 75 Chapter 5 Field evaluation of synergistic effects of Beauveria bassiana and Bacillus 99 thuringiensis with neem oil Chapter 6 Effect of participatory research on farmers’ knowledge and practice of 119 IPM: the case of cotton in Benin Chapter 7 General discussion 141 References 157 Summary 177 Samenvatting 181 Résumé 185 Annex: What is CoS-SIS? 189 Acknowledgements 193 Curriculum Vitae 197 List of publications 199 PE&RC PhD Education Statement Form 201 Chapter 1 General Introduction Codjo Euloge Togbé 1 General Introduction Importance of cotton production This research on improving the cotton pest management system in Benin was done within the framework of the Convergence of Sciences-Strengthening Innovation Systems (CoS-SIS) programme. The programme focuses on alleviating institutional constraints; this could potentially allow African farmers to double or even treble their production (Hounkonnou et al., 2012; Röling et al., 2012). The link between technology and institutional constraints has been reported in many studies conducted in the course of the first phase of CoS-SIS (Adjei- Nsiah, 2006; Ayenor, 2006; Dormon, 2006; Kudadjie, 2006; Nederlof, 2006; Saïdou, 2006; Sinzogan, 2006a; Vissoh, 2006; Zannou, 2006) and was also shown in the recent work by Mapfumo et al. (2013). By “institution” is meant the ensemble of deeply embedded norms and values, legal and regulatory frameworks, policies, governance, and negotiated agreements that are inherent to structures, networks, and value chains determining individual behaviours (Williamson, 2000). In Benin, working groups of high-level experts (Röling et al., 2012) selected three priority areas representing national and smallholders’ interests, to participate in the CoS-SIS programme (see for details of IS in the section on theoretical background). Cotton production is one of these three areas, as this crop is of multidimensional importance in the country. From an economic point of view, cotton is the most important cash crop in Benin, grown by 325,000 farmers and involving much commercial activity. It generates 45% of the national tax revenue, 80% of export revenues (AIC, 2006; Aprobes-Bénin, 2007; Midingoyi, 2008), and constitutes 13% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) and 60% of the industrial base (Performances, 2008) of the country. Approximately 35% of farming households are involved in growing this crop. It constitutes a source of revenue for three million people and represents about 2/3 to 3/4 of Benin’s agricultural income (Glin et al., 2006; Ton et al., 2000). Cotton farming therefore receives special attention and attracts funding from the government. Due to an increase in the cost of inputs driven by the international market, the cotton sector is subsidized, in order to permit farmers to access inputs at an affordable and uniform price across the country. Moreover, all farmers have access to inputs on a credit basis. The cotton produced is bought at a predetermined price agreed upon by ginners and farmers. At the beginning of each season, government representatives participate in price negotiations between all parties. The contribution of cotton to the social development of the country is evident. In the cotton growing areas, production of this crop has contributed to the improvement of physical and social infrastructures and facilities such as rural roads, schools, warehouses for input 2 Chapter 1 storage, water supply systems and hospitals. At the household and individual level, cotton provides a living for over 50% of the population (EFJ, 2007; Glin et al., 2006), allowing farmers to acquire motorbikes, build houses, and pay school and healthcare fees (OBEPAB, 2002), as well as for social events such as weddings and ceremonies. Producing this crop is very labour intensive and involves both male and female workers. Bordering countries such as Burkina Faso and Togo also supply labour for cotton production in northern Benin. These migrants work under contract during the cropping season, and local authorities are sometimes involved in these arrangements. Cotton production also plays a major role in sustaining food security in the country because it serves as a means through which fertilizers are provided to other food crops such as maize, sorghum and rice. This relationship between cotton and food crop production is sustained by the input supply system, which allows farmers who accept to grow cotton to receive an additional amount of fertilizers for food crops. Because this additional fertilizer received by farmers as a bonus for their commitment to growing cotton is generally considered to be insufficient, a certain amount of fertilizers intended for cotton production is deviated to food crops. Furthermore, the maize, which comes to maturity before cotton, is sold and the revenues are used to hire labour to harvest cotton. From a political perspective, cotton production is integrated in a vertical structure linking farmers,