History Teachers in Post-Conflict Contexts and their Role in the Peace Process A case study of Mon Schools in Myanmar Master Thesis || Katharina Buske || 11124229 M.Sc. Process International Development Studies Supervisor: Elizabeth Maber || Second Reader: Sean Higgins University of Amsterdam Graduate School of Social Sciences M.Sc. International Development Studies Master Thesis History Teachers in Post-Conflict Contexts and their Role in the Peace Process A Case Study of Mon Schools in Myanmar1 June, 2016 Katharina Buske | 11124229 [email protected] Supervisor | Elizabeth Maber Second Reader | Sean Higgins 1 The picture on the cover shows history teachers participating in a focus group and filling out questionnaires for this research DEDICATION i I would like to dedicate this thesis to the teachers that were so willingly participating in this research. I am very grateful for your openness talking about sensitive issues and I am very honoured that you shared your experiences and opinions with me. Ich möchte diese Arbeit ebenfalls meinen Eltern widmen, ohne die ich diese Arbeit niemals hätte schreiben können. Vielen Dank für eure unerbitterliche Unterstützung. Ich weiß, ich kann immer auf euch zählen! ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ii First of all I would like to thank my supervisor Elizabeth Maber for supporting me in the whole process and always giving helpful advices. I appreciate her knowledge about the topic and the country and I am very grateful for her support. She is an inspiration. Secondly I would like to thank my second reader, Sean Higgins, for taking the time reading and grading this thesis. My thanks go as well to the staff of the MNEC office in Mawlamyine for helping me conducting this research both in active and passive ways. I would like to thank my IDS friends for a wonderful time with great discussions and Friday drinks. Tobi, thank you for always being by my side and encouraging me to keep going. Last but not least, I want to thank Myint Mon and Mara Moe for supporting me so much in the field. Without those two people, the research would have not been that successful. Thank you for translating, giving advice and being there for me. ABSTRACT iii With its multi-ethnic background and its democratic transition over the last few years, Myanmar offers an insightful new perspective on the relationship between conflict and peace. Myanmar’s past has been coined with violent conflicts between ethnic minorities and the autocratic government since independence in 1948. In this legacy of conflict, the nexus between education and peacebuilding is extremely interesting, because Myanmar’s minorities developed independent education systems. Aligning these education systems is a challenge for the country and has its impact on the peace process. This research focuses on history teachers in the ethnic education system of the Mon people and their contribution to peace through teaching history. The study is based on a 4R approach of peacebuilding focusing on issues of Redistribution, Representation, Recognition and Reconciliation, arguing that a sustainable peace is only possible through a socially just peace process between the state and the Mon Education System. The research applied a mixed methods approach using mainly focus groups, interviews and questionnaires. Findings reveal that the Mon National Education Committee’s (MNEC) increasing cooperation with the government fosters relationships between the two education systems, but that these new encounters as well make inequalities between state and MNEC teachers more visible, which increases divisions. Additionally, MNEC teachers in schools are using history teaching mainly to build and protect an ethnic superior identity, which threatens a process of building a national identity and a peaceful coexistence with all ethnic groups in the country. The construction of the Mon ethnic identity through history teaching in MNEC schools, is a potential problem for a reconciliation process and therefore is in opposition to a positive peace in Myanmar. Reflecting on the theoretical framework it became evident through this research that the four dimensions on peacebuilding can negatively affect each other if the context on the ground is not considered. It suggests that contextual timing of the different dimensions is essential for the success of peacebuilding efforts. It is recommended to start a joint history curriculum writing process and include ethnic education stakeholders in the nation-wide education reform. The research was conducted shortly after the second democratic elections, hence the findings need to be understood in this political context. Keywords - peacebuilding, positive peace, conflict, education, history teaching, Myanmar TABLE OF CONTENTS iv Dedication……………………………………………………………………………………………………..…………….…………….….….i Acknowledgement…………………………………………………………………………………………….………………….……..…..ii Abstract……………………………………………………….…………………………………………………………………..…………….iii Table of Contents…………………………………………………………….……………………………………………….…….….…...iv List of Figures.………………………………………………………………….……………………………………………….….………....v List of Boxes……………………………………………………………………….…………………………………………….….……..…...v List of Tables……………………………………………………………………….………………………………………………..……....…v List of Acronyms…………………….………………………………………………………………………………………..……..……....vi 1. Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background of the research ......................................................................................................................... 2 1.3 Research Rationale – Objectives and Relevance ............................................................................... 3 1.4 Outline of Thesis ................................................................................................................................................. 3 2. Theoretical Framework ......................................................................................................... 5 2.1 Education and Conflict .................................................................................................................................... 5 2.2 Education for Peace – from negative to positive Peace ................................................................. 7 2.2.1 Identity-building through Education .................................................................................................................. 8 2.3 Peacebuilding in the 4R’s framework ..................................................................................................... 9 2.3.1 Teachers as “peace agents”? ................................................................................................................................. 11 2.3.2 The power and responsibility of History Teaching................................................................................. 14 3. Research Design ........................................................................................................................ 16 3.1 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................................................ 16 3.2 Research Location ........................................................................................................................................... 16 3.2.1 Myanmar .......................................................................................................................................................................... 17 3.2.2 Mon State/ Mon Ethnicity ....................................................................................................................................... 17 3.3 Research Question and Sub-Questions ............................................................................................... 19 3.4 Conceptual Scheme ........................................................................................................................................ 19 3.5 Methodology ...................................................................................................................................................... 20 3.5.1 Qualitative Data ........................................................................................................................................................... 20 3.5.2 Quantitative Data ........................................................................................................................................................ 23 3.6 Ethical considerations .................................................................................................................................. 24 3.7 Limitations .......................................................................................................................................................... 25 4. Regional Context ....................................................................................................................... 26 4.1 The Peace Process in Myanmar ............................................................................................................... 26 4.2 Reforming Myanmar’s Education System .......................................................................................... 28 4.3 Overview of the Participants .................................................................................................................... 30 5. The Mon National Education Committee