Aalborg University Culture, Communication and Globalization The Kurdish issue: the Kurds between the historical dream and the ambiguous reality. By: Bader Husein Supervisor: Martin Bak Jørgensen Censor: Anne Lassen Programme: International Relations and Global Order Type of paper: Master Thesis Date: 31st of July 2017 [1] Abstract This paper attempts to shed light on the Kurdish question in both Syria and Turkey, where Kurds are among the largest minorities living in an area with no recognized geographical boundaries. Therefore, this paper addresses several pivotal points related to the Kurdish issue internally and externally. In addition, this paper attempts to reveal the main reasons that prevented the Kurds from establishing their own state. It also reflected the international and regional circumstances that contributed to the failure of the establishment of a Kurdish state and the realization of the Kurdish dream. More importantly, this paper attempts to explain the main factors that contributed significantly to the revitalization of the Kurdish political role regionally and internationally recently, and how these factors have a role in bringing the Kurds to dream of creating their own entity. This paper had to resort to the theoretical framework to explain the Kurdish issue and examine the relationship between the parties involved in this issue. The theory of realism and balance of power has a role in explaining the factors that have contributed to the revitalization of the Kurdish political role recently. Intervention, the basic human needs theory, and the security dilemma examine the main reasons for the failure of the Kurdish state. The findings of this study suggest that international interests and treaties concluded throughout history concerning this issue have played a major role in depriving the Kurds of their legitimate rights, such as the right to self-determination and citizenship. But because of changing political circumstances and the convergence of interests between the Great Powers and the Kurds at this stage, the Kurds have become a striking force representing the great powers and the international coalition in the region. Moreover, the Kurds proved to be the only credible force in the region, especially after demonstrating their ability to confront terrorism (ISIS), and the involvement of most other militant factions in the region with terrorist organizations such as Al-Nosra Front and Daesh. [2] Acknowledgement I would like to offer my profound gratitude to all whom in a way or another contributed to the completion of this thesis. The realization of this project required a lot of guidance and support from many people and I am deeply grateful to have had all this throughout the completion of my thesis writing. I offer my regards to Aalborg University for allowing me to study here. I would like to express my special thanks to all the professors and lecturers from International Relations and Global Order programme and stuff workers of the faculty. My deepest appreciation and thanks goes to my supervisor, Martin Bak Jørgensen, associate professor at CoMID at the Department for Culture and Global Studies, Aalborg University, Denmark, for the patient guidance and constructive recommendations on this research work .Without his assistance and help this thesis would not have been possible. I cannot express enough my thanks and gratitude to my beloved wife and son, Jihan and Ivan, that supported and encouraged me not only through the realization of this thesis but in all my endeavors. Your guidance in difficult times is much appreciated and all your support shall not be forgotten. [3] Table of Contents Abstract ………………………...…………………………………………………… 2 Acknowledgement ….….…………………………………………………………… 3 Chapter 1: Introduction …..…………………………………………………………. 6 1.1 Research questions ……………………………………………………… 12 Chapter 2: Methodology …………………………………………………………… 13 2.1 Research design …………………………………………………………. 13 2.2 Reliability, replication and validity of the research ………………………15 2.3 Data collection ……………………………………………………………16 2.4 Choice of theories and relationship to data ……………………………… 18 Chapter 3: Theory ……………………………………………………………………20 3.1 Realism theory …………………………………………………………….20 3.2 Balance of power ………………………………………………………….25 3.3 Security dilemma ………………………………………………………….27 3.4 Interventionism ……………………………………………………………28 3.5 Basic human needs theory ………………………………………………...30 Chapter 4: Analysis ………………………………………………………………….32 4.1 Historical background of the Kurds ………………………………………32 4.2 Political, civil and cultural rights of the Kurds ……………………………38 4.3 Syrian-Turkish relations and the Kurds …………………………………...47 4.4 The role of the Kurds in a balance of power ………………………………50 4.5 States interests in light of realists‘ hypotheses ……………………………57 4.6 The role of the Kurdish diaspora ………………………………………….67 Chapter 5: Conclusion ………………………………………………………………..69 List of references ……………………………………………………………………..72 Appendix ……………………………………………………………………………..78 [4] List of Abbreviations KDP: The Kurdistan Democratic Party. PKK: The Kurdistan Workers‘ Party. KDPS: The Kurdistan Democratic Party of Syria. HDP: The Peoples‘ Democratic Party. HEP: The Peoples‘ Labour Party. AKP: The Justice and Development Party. YPG: The People‘s Protection Units. SDF or QSD: The Syrian Democratic Forces. PYD: The Democratic Union Party. NATO: The North Atlantic Treaty Organization. ISIL: Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant. [5] Introduction I leave it to God’s wisdom The Kurds in this world’s state Why are they deprived of their rights? Why are they all doomed? See, from the Arabs to the Georgians Everything is Kurdish and, as with a citadel, The Turks and the Persians besiege them From four sides at once. And they both make the Kurdish people Into a target for Fate’s arrow. (Romano 2006:3). The Kurdish poet Ehmed-e Xani illustrated the Kurdish situation through these verses. The Kurds are considered the largest stateless minority throughout today‘s world, with approximately 30 million Kurdish people dispersed among Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran. In his book (Vision or Reality), the senior lecturer at Lund University, Borhanedin A.Yassin considered that the Kurds have existed in what is on ethnic grounds defined as Kurdistan for several thousands of years, tracing the origin of Kurds back to Medes (1995:35). As the Kurds case in the four parts of Kurdistan is such an enormous question to discuss, this thesis focusing only on the Kurds in Syria and Turkey. The Kurds in Syria are the largest ethnic minority, formulating around 2 million people or 8% of Syrian society, where they stabilize particularly in north of Syria. The history of the Kurds in Syria extends back to prehistory, where the Kurds have been part of the Syrian society for thousands of years. The Kurds in Syria, like any Kurdish group around the Kurdistan parts, have their rights socially, politically, and culturally. Throughout history, these rights have been hindered by repression and persecution by the occupying powers and the Syrian government. After the withdrawal of the Ottomans from the Levant and Iraq in the First World War, the French and English troops occupied the region and divided the area up under the Sykes-Picot agreement in 1916. [6] This agreement deprived the Kurds from the right of self-determination as it divided Kurdistan between Turkey, Syria and Iraq. In his book Historical Dictionary of the Kurds Michael M. Gunter writes: ―Originally, the Sykes-Picot Agreement gave most of the Kurdish areas in what became Turkey and Syria to the French and in Iraq and parts of Turkey to Russia, this agreement became a byword for British-French imperialist control of the Middle East and, with it, manipulation and control of the Kurds‖ (2011:282-283). The events have been going on since the Sykes-Picot Agreement to this day, the Syrian government (Al-Baath Party) continues to suppress the Kurdish people and try to blur their culture and identity, refusing to recognize them as a major component of Syrian society. These arbitrary practices against the Kurdish people resulted in the birth of Kurdish parties such as 1957 Kurdistan Democratic Party of Syria, demanding the legitimate rights of the Kurdish people in Syria. Jordi Tejel states that the role of the Kurdish parties in Syria was an exception, where they remained a marginal actor in the political arena. Moreover, he adds ―Syrian Kurdish parties were unable to impose themselves as legitimate actors and open negotiations with the central government, a step which normally only takes place after a period of armed conflict‖ (Syria‘s Kurds.2009:85). The situation of the Kurdish parties has changed since the beginning of the Syrian revolution in 2011. Some Kurdish parties took serious steps to obtain the legitimate rights of the Kurdish people. These legitimate rights include pluralism, democracy, public freedoms, human rights, constitutional recognition of the Kurdish people in Syria, recognition of Kurdish identity, and recognition of the Kurdish language, among others. These demands have been rejected by the Syrian opposition, who accused the Kurds of being separatists who have no rights to reside in Syria. This rejection from the Syrian opposition has provoked a reaction from the Kurdish side, with them declaring federalism in northern Syria and ruling their own regions with American military aids. On the other side of Kurdistan, Kurds in Turkey make up almost 20% of Turkish society, where they are based in the south and southeast of the country. Kurds in Turkey like any