The GNN Effect: Global News Networks as Intelligence Gathering and Diplomatic Institutions By Markos Kounalakis Submitted to Central European University Doctoral School of Public Policy and International Relations In partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy Supervisor: Dr. Matteo Fumagalli Word count: 74,304 CEU eTD Collection Budapest, 2016 DECLARATION I hereby declare that no parts of this dissertation have been accepted for any other degrees in any other institutions. This dissertation contains no materials previously written and/or published by another person, except where appropriate acknowledgment is made in the form of bibliographical reference. Markos Kounalakis May 5, 2016 CEU eTD Collection i ABSTRACT News and information organizations have an apparent effect on foreign policymaking. Generally, it takes the form of influence on agendas or elites. But there is a less apparent, and arguably more important role they play in both forming and carrying out foreign policy: they are active participants in both diplomacy and intelligence gathering. Journalists are not diplomats or spies, but they often perform those roles – whether they know it or not and whether they admit it or not. This study looks at what has been overlooked and it uses exclusive and, by necessity, mostly confidential interviews to expose and contextualize this long-established, yet mostly hidden, practice. Western journalists have long dominated the global news and information system. But that is changing rapidly. Chinese and Russian capacities are currently expanding and developing at an unprecedented pace while the West’s are diminishing and degrading, due primarily to the collapse of the traditional, non-state Western news business model. The world’s fastest growing players in these Global News Networks (GNNs) and in this evolving media ecology are now the Chinese and Russians. Both states control and are investing heavily in market-agnostic, state-owned news and information enterprises. This study reveals that Russian and Chinese GNNs are actively exploiting the same diplomatic and intelligence gathering practices as those who preceded them in the West—where the practice continues, but capacities are relatively diminished. Further, the Chinese and Russians have long formalized the roles of spying and diplomacy into their journalistic system and are actively exploiting new opportunities in CEU eTD Collection globalized media, non-governmental organizations, and the academy. As a result, the costs, risks, and inherent limitations borne by non-Western states establishing traditional intelligence and diplomatic outposts are minimized by exploiting GNNs—and the journalists, NGO ii workers, and academics who comprise contemporary GNNs—to undertake more of their states’ intelligence gathering and diplomatic burden. The players may be new (and there are certainly more of them), but the game is old. What this means is that the West is losing absolute and relative diplomatic and intelligence gathering capacities it may never have controlled, but always exploited. The Chinese and other non-Western countries, on the other hand, are rapidly gaining greater capacities from institutions and individuals they have always controlled. This relative shift in capacities from West to non-West is certainly having an effect on state intelligence and diplomatic practice. The ultimate effect of this shifting relative power between the two is the material power gain of capacities for the non-West, often at the expense of the West. This is today’s GNN Effect. CEU eTD Collection iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS First, I wish to acknowledge those who worked hardest and closest with me to discover, explore, and finalize this dissertation. My Central European University doctoral advisor, Professor Matteo Fumagalli, CEU Professor Erin Jenne, and University of Washington Professor Phil Howard. Three distinguished and hard-working scholars making their own mark on the academy. I am privileged to have worked with them and look forward to future collaboration. My work also benefitted enormously from the dedicated work of my research assistant, Judit Szakacs. Thank you! Finally, I need to thank my wife, Eleni, and my two boys, Neo and Eon, who gave me the time and space to do what needed to get done. They have my undying love and affection. CEU eTD Collection iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Declaration ............................................................................................................................................................................... i Abstract ................................................................................................................................................................................... ii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents .................................................................................................................................................................. v List of Tables ........................................................................................................................................................................ vii List of Figures .................................................................................................................................................................... viii List of Photographs ............................................................................................................................................................. ix Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................................ 1 Global News Networks: Definition and Typology ...................................................................................................... 3 The Changing GNN Landscape ..................................................................................................................................... 8 Relevance ......................................................................................................................................................................... 15 Methodology ................................................................................................................................................................... 17 The comparative method .......................................................................................................................................... 19 Elite interviewing ....................................................................................................................................................... 20 The Structure of this Dissertation .............................................................................................................................. 24 Chapter 1: GNNs and State Power .................................................................................................................................. 27 1.1 GNNs and soft power ............................................................................................................................................. 29 1.2 GNNs and hard power ........................................................................................................................................... 41 Chapter 2 – Western GNNs and State Power 1: Diplomacy ....................................................................................... 45 2.1 Formal Diplomacy ................................................................................................................................................... 48 2.2 Informal Diplomacy ................................................................................................................................................ 55 2.2.1 External Perception ......................................................................................................................................... 55 2.2.2 Self Perception ................................................................................................................................................. 57 2.2.3 Informal Diplomacy: Individuals ................................................................................................................... 63 2.2.4 Legal Obligations to Engage in Informal Diplomacy ................................................................................ 65 2.3 Formal and Informal Intersectional Diplomatic Functions .............................................................................. 70 2.4 Access ........................................................................................................................................................................ 77 2.5 National Alignment and Attitudes ........................................................................................................................ 78 2.6 GNN Functions Paralleling Diplomatic Practice & Forums ............................................................................ 82 2.7 Diplomacy and Intelligence Gathering ................................................................................................................. 85 Chapter 3 – Western GNNs and State Power 2: Intelligence Gathering ..................................................................