Theory Ruled by Practice: Zarlino's Reversal of the Classical System of Proportions! Benito V. Rivera Thus two things most of all should be dealt with in this treatise, namely, consonances, which are natural, out of which songs are made, and songs themselves, which are artificial. 2 Gioseffo Zarlino's ivory-tower pronouncements on music, such as the above, provided ample fuel for the scathing polemics subsequently directed against him. Of all his critics, his former pupil Vincenzo Galilei was by far the most merciless. "Nature has neither hands nor mouth," Galilei was quick to remind him. "It cannot play music or lIt is a pleasure to thank my colleagues Walter Robert, Lewis E. Rowell, and Allen C. Winold for reading an earlier draft of this paper and sharing with me their valuable observations. 2" ••• pero havendosi principal mente in esso a trattare due cose: cioe Ie Consonanze, che sono cose naturali, di che si fanno Ie Cantilene: et esse Cantilene, che sono arteficiali." Gioseffo Zarlino, Le istitutioni harmoniche, 3rd ed. (Venice: Francesco Senese, 1573; facs. ed., Ridgewood, NJ: Gregg Press, 1966), proemium, 3. 146 Indiana Theory Review Vol. 16 sing, and our playing and singing is totally artificial. ,,3 And concerning the older man's frequent references to numero sonoro, sonorous number, as the norm for what is harmonious in music,4 Galilei had a ready quip: "Since nutpber has no body, it cannot be sonorous.,,5 The quarrel between these two antagonists has been recounted in detail by modern historians. 6 Galilei emerges as the more down-to-earth and the more attuned to new developments in sixteenth-century musical practice. In contrast, Zarlino is depicted as the proponent of a compositional method laden with abstract speculation. Reviewing Zarlino's list of "nature-ordained" cadential pitches for each of the twelve modes, Carl Dahlhaus pronounces a verdict: Zarlino's I -V -III schema, the rule that in every mode the clausula primaria should be on degree I, the clausula secundaria on degree V, and the clausula tertiaria on degree III, is speculative and not based on empirical evidence. 7 3"La natura poi per non havere ne mani ne bocca non gli e concedutto ch'ella suoni ne ch'ella canti, & il sonare & il cantar' nostro e tutt'arte." Vincenzo Galilei, Discorso intorno aUe opere di Gioseffo Zarlino (F1or~nce: G. Marescotti, 1589; facs. ed., Milan: Bollettino Bibliographico Musicale, 1933), 20. The preceding quotation from Zarlino's Istitutioni (see n. 1) does not appear in the proemium of the first edition (1558). That Zarlino should deliberately insert it in the revised proemium indicates the emphasis that he wished to give to it. Henceforth references to the Istitutioni (1st. harm.) will pertain to the 1573 edition. 4Zarlino, 1st. harm., pt. 1, chaps. 13, 15, 19, etc. 5" ... il numero come quello che non ha corpo, non puo esse sonoro." V. Galilei, Il primo libro della prattica de Contrapunto (MS 1589; mod. ed. in Frieder Rempp, Die Kontrapunkttraktate Vincenzo Galileis [Cologne: Arno Yolk, 1980]), 15. 6See especially the excellent accounts in Claude V. Palisca, Humanism in Italian Renaissance Musical Thought (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1985), 244-50; 265-79; idem, Studies in the History of Italian Music and Music Theory (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1994), 30-53. 7Carl Dahlhaus, Studies on the Origin of Harmonic Tonality, trans. Robert O. Gjerdingen (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990), 219-20. Rivera, Theory Ruled by Practice 147 As will be shown later in this paper, Dahlhaus does not take into account the full context of Zarlino's schema. But his negative critique brings to the fore a fundamental question: Does Zarlino's speculative bias effectively undermine the reliability of his testimony on matters pertaining to sixteenth-century musical practice? I would argue that it does not. Zarlino's writings, properly read, can still inform us about the way sixteenth-century musicians actually practiced their craft. Having said that, I must warn the reader that this paper does not center on musical practice. The focus will be on Zarlino's speCUlative theory and the question of its relationship to his view of musical practice. To be sure, not everything that Zarlino wrote or taught could have been free of error. Each tenet should be evaluated according to its own merit. But to accomplish that task of weighing and evaluating, we must first rectify a preexisting imbalance. From the outset the scale is tilted toward the assumption, inspired by Galilei' s clever argumentation, that Zarlino's teachings are unsoundly based on a priori reasoning. Claude Palisca offers a succinct summary of that point of view: Galilei was skeptical of a process of thought that began with nature as the occasion for some idea but left it to elaborate theories never further subjected to verification by controlled observation of nature. The laws of composition set down by Zarlino constituted such a theory, evolved from an ideal view of nature, leaving the immediate facts in the distance. 8 We can trace the deductive aspect of Zarlino's theory by drawing a series of propositions that lead to some of his more well-known compositional rules: 9 8Claude V. Palisca, "Vincenzo Galilei' s Counterpoint Treatise: A Code for the Seconda Pratica," Journal of the American Musicological Society 9 (1956): 85; reprint in idem, Studies in the History of Italian Music and Music Theory, 36-37. 9Propositions a to f are derived from 1st. harm., pt. 1, proemium and chaps. 1-4, 11, 13, and 16; g and h are derived from pt. 3, chaps. 10 and 59, and pt. 4, chaps. 18-32. 148 Indiana Theory Review Vol. 16 (a) The highest kind of knowledge is that which grasps ultimate causes or reasons. (b) Therefore composers truly know their art only if they can explain the reasons for their choices. (c) But artistic reasons should be based on nature, the nature of music consists of proportion, and proportion consists of number. (d) Therefore artistic reasons should be based on the nature of number. (e) But six (senario) is the first perfect number. (f) Therefore the senario is the primary source of harmony in mUSIC. (g) Therefore the art of musical composition must be guided by the harmony of the senario. (h) Therefore, in accordance with the nature of the senario, polyphonic works should employ complete harmonies; major five-three sonorities should express joy, and minor sonorities sorrow; cadences should occur on the I, V, and III degrees of a given mode. The pattern of discourse outlined above proceeds along the path of Aristotelian deduction. Zarlino, after all, welcomed every opportunity of displaying his familiarity with the Stagirite's methods. 10 But it is important to understand the nature of this one method in particular. Modern interpreters have shown that deduction, as conceived by Aristotle, serves a specific purpose. It is an instrument of teaching lCThe proemium and pt. l, chap. l, of 1st. harm. echo several ideas from the beginning of Aristotle's Metaphysica. Both works expound on the attributes of scientific knowledge, stating that it should culminate in the understanding of ultimate causes. Rivera, Theory Ruled by Practice 149 rather than of research. One who reasons through a syllogism is not really in search of new knowledge. Through a syllogism one aims, rather, to demonstrate to others the rationality of what one already knows. l1 Zarlino' s mode of discourse should thus be viewed in that light. It hardly needs mentioning that, prior to writing his treatise, he had already learned composition through actual practice, not through speculative deduction, under the guidance of Adrian Willaert. It was this practical legacy of Willaert that Zarlino aimed to transmit to his readers.12 The deductive route that he took to rationalize certain rules of composition may have been completely wrong. But that does not necessarily bear on the authenticity and empirical basis of the rules themselves. Zarlino's critics will argue, however, that he misused the deductive method. From their vantage point Zarlino appears as a system builder so enamored of number theory that he willfully misrepresents the commonly accepted practice of the day to make it conform to his ideal order. They ignore the fact that whenever he presents a rule of composition, he almost always cites examples from the existing repertory, or appeals to the judgment of the senses, or even allows room for many exceptions. This is hardly characteristic of one who spins arbitrary precepts out of abstract generalities. The rule concerning cadential pitches, which Dahlhaus dismisses as speculative and not based on empirical evidence, is in fact abundantly supplemented with reminders that alternative choices are possible and indeed sanctioned by convention. 13 For the rest of this paper, however, I shall follow a different tack to show the strongly empirical foundation of Zarlino's teachings. I will argue that, far from misrepresenting the commonly llJohn Herman Randal, Aristotle (New York: Columbia University Press, 1960),40; G. E. L. Owen, "Aristotle: Method, Physics, and Cosmology," in Dictionary of Scientific Biography, ed. Charles Coulston Gillispie (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1970-80), 1:252; Jonathan Barnes (trans.), Aristotle's Posterior Analytics (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1975), translator's introduction, x-xi. 12Zarlino, 1st. harm., proemium, 2. 13See ibid., pt. 4, chaps. 18-30. 150 Indiana Theory Review Vol. 16 accepted practice of his time in order to satisfy a speculative bias, he actually devised an intricate reversal of the ancient theory of proportions in order to reconcile it with his own era's newly developing harmonic consciousness. On the surface, Zarlino's number theory may seem to be a mere display of classical learning.