Durham E-Theses Electric Car Cultures: An ethnography of the everyday use of electric vehicles in the UK BRADY, JOANNE How to cite: BRADY, JOANNE (2010) Electric Car Cultures: An ethnography of the everyday use of electric vehicles in the UK, Durham theses, Durham University. Available at Durham E-Theses Online: http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/690/ Use policy The full-text may be used and/or reproduced, and given to third parties in any format or medium, without prior permission or charge, for personal research or study, educational, or not-for-prot purposes provided that: • a full bibliographic reference is made to the original source • a link is made to the metadata record in Durham E-Theses • the full-text is not changed in any way The full-text must not be sold in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. Please consult the full Durham E-Theses policy for further details. Academic Support Oce, Durham University, University Oce, Old Elvet, Durham DH1 3HP e-mail: [email protected] Tel: +44 0191 334 6107 http://etheses.dur.ac.uk 2 Electric Car Cultures: An ethnography of the everyday use of electric vehicles in the UK Joanne Brady Electric Car Cultures: An ethnography of the everyday use of electric vehicles in the UK Abstract This study uses ethnographic methods to study drivers of electric vehicles (EVs) in the UK to add a user perspective to current knowledge of the developing technology of EVs. EVs have had a revival in popularity since their near extinction in the early twentieth century. There is interest from support industries in how a further resurgence in popularity will affect demand for support services, and how increased EV use could re-shape the infrastructure and the landscapes that have been written by decades of combustion-engine vehicle use. Some ethnographic studies of EV drivers have been done, although these are small in number and on a limited scale. This study will look closely at a number of UK based EV drivers and their households, and use ethnographic methods to document patterns of use and driving styles, as well as discuss the attitudes and values of current EV drivers. EV drivers today are an informal collective of innovators and early adopters who form communities to facilitate social learning, and this forming of, and use of networks will be explored. This study will provide an insight into how EV drivers use their EVs on an everyday basis, and find out if there are any problems which EV drivers currently face, which need to be addressed before EVs can become a mass market product. Page | i Electric Car Cultures: An ethnography of the everyday use of electric vehicles in the UK Joanne Brady MA by Research Department of Anthropology Durham University Year: 2010 Page | ii Contents Section Page Abstract i Title Page ii Table of Contents iii List of illustrations vi Statement of Copyright vii Acknowledgements viii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Introduction to Electric Vehicles (EVs) 1 1.2 Concerns of industry 5 1.3 EV Recharging Infrastructure 6 1.4 EV Drivers 8 1.5 Models of Ownership 9 1.6 Alternatives to the EV 9 1.7 Introduction to this study 10 2 Methods 13 2.1 Use of the Discipline of Anthropology 13 2.2 Making Contact 15 2.3 Conducting the Research 19 2.4 Profile of the Study Group 20 3 Literature Review 23 3.1 Introduction to EVs 23 3.2 Energy, Electricity and the Environment 24 3.3 Technology and Society 28 3.4 A Car is not just a Car 35 3.5 Cars, Transport Infrastructure and Society 38 3.6 Cars as a Convenience 45 Page | iii 4 Technology and Society 48 4.1 Traits of Innovators and Early Adopters 49 4.1.1 Education Levels 49 4.1.2 Occupations 50 4.1.3 Fatalism 51 4.1.4 High Level of Exposure to Mass Media 52 4.1.5 Culture and Foreign Travel 53 4.1.6 Influencing Others 54 4.1.7 Mutual Shaping of Technology and Systems 56 4.1.8 Early Adopters are Respected for their Advice 58 4.2 Knowledge of Technology 59 4.2.1 Knowledge of Energy Production 59 4.2.2 Consumers as Active Participants 61 4.2.3 Technophilia 64 4.2.4 Tolerance of Technological Deficiencies 65 4.2.5 The Deficiency of Limited Range 68 4.3 Innovative Behaviour 69 4.3.1 Product Innovation 70 4.3.2 Other Innovation 71 4.4 Summary 72 5 EV Relationships 74 5.1 Motivation for Adoption 74 5.1.1 The Environment 75 5.1.2 Cost Saving 76 5.1.3 Technophilia and Hobbyism 80 5.1.4 Being Different 84 5.1.5 Outside Influence 84 5.2 Drivers’ Relationships with their Vehicles 86 5.2.1 Personalisation and Attention 86 5.2.2 Life Enrichment 89 5.2.3 Developing Relationships 91 5.2.4 Electric Vehicles and Gender 92 5.2.5 Self-Image and Symbolism 94 5.3 Drivers’ Relationships with Each Other 96 5.3.1 Types of people who drive EVs 96 5.3.2 Attitudes to others 97 5.3.3 Relationships with other EV drivers 99 5.3.4 Social Relations 100 5.4 Summary 101 Page | iv 6 EV Use in the Real World 105 6.1 Driving Style 105 6.1.1 Instrumentation 107 6.1.2 Regenerative Braking 108 6.1.3 Range Awareness and Maximisation 109 6.1.4 Driving Attitude 110 6.1.5 Pedestrians 112 6.2 Care and Management 114 6.2.1 Lead-Acid Batteries 115 6.2.2 Nickel-type Batteries 117 6.2.3 Lithium-type Batteries 119 6.2.4 Maintenance and Servicing 119 6.3 Recharging 121 6.3.1 Recharging Location 122 6.3.2 Recharging Technology 123 6.3.3 Recharging Times 124 6.3.4 Public Recharging 126 6.4 Patterns of Use 131 6.4.1 Data from a Travel Diary 132 6.4.2 Use of Public Transport 135 6.5 User Scripts 136 6.5.1 Change of use 137 6.6 Summary 139 7 Future of EVs 141 7.1 Attitudes to Future Technology 141 7.1.1 Fast Charging 141 7.1.2 Battery Swap Stations 142 7.1.3 Induction Charging 143 7.1.4 Vehicle to Grid Technology 143 7.1.5 Hydrogen Vehicles 145 7.2 The Move to Mass Market 145 7.2.1 Future Adoption 146 7.2.2 Lessons Learned 147 7.3 Summary 153 8 Conclusion 155 8.1 EV Drivers Today 155 8.2 Threats and Opportunities in Energy 157 8.3 Critique of Research 158 8.4 Further Research 159 8.5 Concluding Comments 160 9 Bibliography 162 10 Glossary 169 Page | v List of Illustrations / tables Fig Title Page number Mike and Angela with their G -Wiz Front Cover 1.1 Mike with his on-trial Mitsubishi iMiev 2 1.2 A Tesla Roadster 3 1.3 A Reva G-Wiz 3 1.4 An Elektrobay recharging pillar 7 4.1 Education levels of drivers in the study 49 4.2 A driver demonstrates the EV-Lite in action 70 5.1 A vehicle with a notice informing people behind it is 87 powered by electric 6.1 The battery pack in an Elcat van 116 6.2 A 16-amp to 13-amp adapter 124 6.3 Table comparing basic data from the National Travel 134 Survey and data from this study 6.4 A Citroen Berlingo Electrique 137 Page | vi Statement of Copyright The copyright of this thesis rests with the author. No quotation from it should be published without the prior written consent and information derived from it should be acknowledged. Page | vii Acknowledgements This project received funding from One North East. This study would not have been possible without the financial support of One North East, and the industry insight provided by CE-Electric UK. Many thanks to Dr Sandra Bell and Dr Ben Campbell of Durham University for their continued support and direction. Special thanks to The Battery Vehicle Society and to Going Green for assisting me in recruiting willing participants. A big thank-you to all the participants for giving up their time to talk to me about their experiences with their electric vehicles, letting me into their homes and lives, feeding me, and making a huge effort to ensure I had everything possible to write as accurate as possible my story of electric vehicles and their drivers today. Page | viii Chapter One - Introduction In March 2010, residents of Brighton, a popular tourist city on the south coast of England, received letters from the local council informing them of the upcoming installation of two electric car recharging points in the city. People who come to pass by these items of street furniture probably will not even notice them, let alone consider their significance. After all, the oversight of everyday, mundane occurrences going on around us is not unusual; but they will indeed exist and they will be significant. At the very basic level, they signify the start of a progressive transformation of a niche and marginal product into the mainstream. 1.1 Introduction to Electric Vehicles (EVs) Electric Vehicles, or EVs as they will be referred to throughout this study, are not a new technology. Indeed EVs have been around since the early days of motoring, but were all but eradicated by the rising popularity of combustion engine technology during the era of Henry Ford.